{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,22]],"date-time":"2026-03-22T16:06:13Z","timestamp":1774195573582,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":109,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,7]],"date-time":"2023-06-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1686096000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biology"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Chronic spinal cord injury affects several respiratory-function-related parameters, such as a decrease in respiratory volumes associated with weakness and a tendency to fibrosis of the perithoracic muscles, a predominance of vagal over sympathetic action inducing airway obstructions, and a difficulty in mobilizing secretions. Altogether, these changes result in both restrictive and obstructive patterns. Moreover, low pulmonary ventilation and reduced cardiovascular system functionality (low venous return and right stroke volume) will hinder adequate alveolar recruitment and low O2 diffusion, leading to a drop in peak physical performance. In addition to the functional effects described above, systemic and localized effects on this organ chronically increase oxidative damage and tissue inflammation. This narrative review describes both the deleterious effects of chronic spinal cord injury on the functional effects of the respiratory system as well as the role of oxidative damage\/inflammation in this clinical context. In addition, the evidence for the effect of general and respiratory muscular training on the skeletal muscle as a possible preventive and treatment strategy for both functional effects and underlying tissue mechanisms is summarized.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biology12060828","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,8]],"date-time":"2023-06-08T02:58:32Z","timestamp":1686193112000},"page":"828","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Systemic and Pulmonary Inflammation\/Oxidative Damage: Implications of General and Respiratory Muscle Training in Chronic Spinal-Cord-Injured Patients"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Oscar F.","family":"Araneda","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Integrative Laboratory of Biomechanics and Physiology of Effort (LIBFE), Kinesiology School, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de los Andes, Monse\u00f1or \u00c1lvaro del Portillo, Las Condes, Santiago 12455, Chile"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8294-2522","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristi\u00e1n","family":"Rosales-Antequera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Unit, Cl\u00ednica Universidad de los Andes, Santiago 8320000, Chile"},{"name":"Physiology Section, Department of Cell Biology, Physiology, and Immunology, Faculty of Biology, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0674-7506","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Felipe","family":"Contreras-Brice\u00f1o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Exercise Physiology, Department of Health Science, Faculty of Medicine, Pontificia Universidad Cat\u00f3lica de Chile, Av. Vicu\u00f1a Mackenna #4860, Santiago 7820436, Chile"},{"name":"Millennium Institute for Intelligent Healthcare Engineering, Av. Vicu\u00f1a Mackenna #4860, Santiago 7820436, Chile"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5711-7520","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcelo","family":"Tuesta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences Institute, School of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Rehabilitation Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago 7591538, Chile"}]},{"given":"Rafael","family":"Rossi-Serrano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Unit, Cl\u00ednica Universidad de los Andes, Santiago 8320000, Chile"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4808-8374","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"Magalh\u00e3es","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Metabolism and Exercise (LaMetEx), Research Centre in Physical Activity, Health and Leisure (CIAFEL), Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4942-2346","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gin\u00e9s","family":"Viscor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Physiology Section, Department of Cell Biology, Physiology, and Immunology, Faculty of Biology, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.sc.3102026","article-title":"Sir Ludwig Guttmann Lecture: Trends in spinal cord injury rehabilitation outcomes from model systems in the United States: 1973\u20132006","volume":"45","author":"DeVivo","year":"2007","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1038\/sc.2012.55","article-title":"Life expectancy after spinal cord injury: A 50-year study","volume":"50","author":"Middleton","year":"2012","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1038\/sc.2016.159","article-title":"The natural course of spinal cord injury: Changes over 40 years among those with exceptional survival","volume":"55","author":"Krause","year":"2016","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1179\/2045772314Y.0000000295","article-title":"Psychosocial correlates of depression following spinal injury: A systematic review","volume":"38","author":"Kraft","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. 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