{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,10]],"date-time":"2026-04-10T17:58:25Z","timestamp":1775843905419,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":171,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,24]],"date-time":"2025-12-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766534400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"FEDER\u2014Fundo Europeu de Desenvovimento Regional"},{"name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecno-logia","award":["UIDB\/4255\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/4255\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT and FEDER","award":["IF\/00092\/2014\/CP1255\/CT0004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IF\/00092\/2014\/CP1255\/CT0004"]}]},{"name":"FCT and FEDER","award":["PRR-09\/C06-834I07\/2024.P11721"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PRR-09\/C06-834I07\/2024.P11721"]}]},{"name":"FCT and FEDER","award":["2024.18026.PEX"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024.18026.PEX"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomolecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Therapeutic peptides have rapidly evolved into multifunctional tools for precision oncology, offering molecular specificity and biocompatibility. Their roles in cancer therapy, however, are inherently overlapping. The same peptide can function as a targeting ligand, a cell-penetrating motif, a therapeutic effector, or a structural component of peptide\u2013drug conjugates (PDCs), nanoparticle (NP) systems, and radionuclide constructs. This functional convergence makes rigid classification challenging. In this review, we therefore organize peptide modalities according to their dominant therapeutic function while acknowledging the fluid boundaries between categories. Firstly, we outline the main functional classes of therapeutic peptides, covering their use as targeting ligands and their roles as active agents (i.e., receptor agonists\/antagonists, intracellular protein\u2013protein interaction modulators, etc.). Additionally, we summarize their application in peptide\u2013drug conjugates (PDCs), peptide-guided radionuclides, and cancer vaccines, integrating key mechanistic principles and clinical evidence. Finally, we discuss the major translational barriers to clinical use and how they might be overcome. The developments in peptide engineering position them as adaptable, multifunctional platforms capable of improving precision, reducing toxicity, and advancing personalized cancer care.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biom16010027","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,24]],"date-time":"2025-12-24T11:22:14Z","timestamp":1766575334000},"page":"27","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["From Mechanism to Medicine: Peptide-Based Approaches for Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3747-5520","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Jo\u00e3o","family":"Gouveia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"PerMed Research Group, RISE-Health, Department of Community Medicine, Health Information and Decision (MEDCIDS), Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Alameda Professor Hern\u00e2ni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Joana","family":"Campanh\u00e3","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"PerMed Research Group, RISE-Health, Department of Community Medicine, Health Information and Decision (MEDCIDS), Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Alameda Professor Hern\u00e2ni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Francisca","family":"Barbosa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"PerMed Research Group, RISE-Health, Department of Community Medicine, Health Information and Decision (MEDCIDS), Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Alameda Professor Hern\u00e2ni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1283-1042","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nuno","family":"Vale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"PerMed Research Group, RISE-Health, Department of Community Medicine, Health Information and Decision (MEDCIDS), Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Alameda Professor Hern\u00e2ni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Laboratory of Personalized Medicine, Department of Community Medicine, Health Information and Decision (MEDCIDS), Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Rua Doutor Pl\u00e1cido da Costa, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"RISE-Health, Department of Community Medicine, Health Information and Decision (MEDCIDS), Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Rua Doutor Pl\u00e1cido da Costa, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1186\/s12929-017-0328-x","article-title":"Evaluation of the use of therapeutic peptides for cancer treatment","volume":"24","author":"Marqus","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. 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