{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]],"date-time":"2026-08-12T23:19:13Z","timestamp":1786576753132,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":114,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782777600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomedicines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Advancing age, while a natural trajectory, often leads to several age-related diseases (ARDs) and impacts the quality of life (QOL) of the elderly. The World Health Organization (WHO) predicts that the incidence of ARDs is only going to increase over the next couple of decades. Musculoskeletal (MSK) diseases associated with advancing age are a major global health burden and are closely associated with cellular senescence, inflammaging and immunosenescence. To target these, a clear pathway with well-defined biomarkers that can then be translated into clinical applications is needed. Clearly defined biomarkers will bring us one step closer to dissecting age-related MSK changes, tracking these changes with advancing age, predicting these MSK ARDs and thus providing a platform towards healthy aging, disease-free life in the elderly and longevity. This review outlines our current knowledge in the field, discusses the current knowns and unknowns, provides an overview of the anti-aging strategies, and finally encourages its readers to consider approaches to help converge biomarkers of aging for clinical translation using next-generation technologies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines14071486","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T16:56:55Z","timestamp":1782838615000},"page":"1486","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Biomarkers of Inflammaging and Cellular Senescence in Musculoskeletal (MSK) Diseases: The Knowns and the Unknowns"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1042-5910","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Payal","family":"Ganguly","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Leeds Institute of Rheumatic and Musculoskeletal Medicine, University of Leeds, Leeds LS7 4SA, UK"},{"name":"Leeds Biomedical Research Centre, Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Leeds LS7 4SA, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-019-0244-7","article-title":"Ageing as a risk factor for neurodegenerative disease","volume":"15","author":"Hou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683459","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2021.683459","article-title":"The Ageing Brain: Molecular and Cellular Basis of Neurodegeneration","volume":"9","author":"Azam","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.31083\/j.rcm2304135","article-title":"Aging and Cardiovascular Disease: Current Status and Challenges","volume":"23","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rev. Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1412","DOI":"10.1093\/eurjpc\/zwac033","article-title":"Cardiovascular disease in the elderly: Proceedings of the European Society of Cardiology\u2014Cardiovascular Round Table","volume":"29","author":"Lettino","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Prev. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1038\/s41413-021-00164-y","article-title":"Cellular senescence in musculoskeletal homeostasis, diseases, and regeneration","volume":"9","author":"Wan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bone Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1405621","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1405621","article-title":"The impact of ageing mechanisms on musculoskeletal system diseases in the elderly","volume":"15","author":"Cai","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2026, February 23). World Health Organisation, Musculoskeletal Factsheet 2022. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/musculoskeletal-conditions."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"(2026, February 01). World Health Organization: Ageing and Health. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/ageing-and-health."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joca.2023.11.018","article-title":"Aging and the emerging role of cellular senescence in osteoarthritis","volume":"32","author":"Diekman","year":"2024","journal-title":"Osteoarthr. Cartil."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e10488","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm4.10488","article-title":"Bone Aging, Cellular Senescence, and Osteoporosis","volume":"5","author":"Pignolo","year":"2021","journal-title":"JBMR Plus"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1002\/art.43105","article-title":"Immune Aging in Rheumatoid Arthritis","volume":"77","author":"Weyand","year":"2025","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lawrence, M., Goyal, A., Pathak, S., and Ganguly, P. (2024). Cellular Senescence and Inflammaging in the Bone: Pathways, Genetics, Anti-Aging Strategies and Interventions. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25137411"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100725","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lanhl.2025.100725","article-title":"Digital biomarkers of ageing for monitoring physiological systems in community-dwelling adults","volume":"6","author":"Lu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet Healthy Longev."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2013.05.039","article-title":"The hallmarks of aging","volume":"153","author":"Blasco","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2022.11.001","article-title":"Hallmarks of aging: An expanding universe","volume":"186","author":"Blasco","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-023-01502-8","article-title":"Inflammation and aging: Signaling pathways and intervention therapies","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1038\/s41420-025-02655-x","article-title":"Hallmarks and mechanisms of cellular senescence in aging and disease","volume":"11","author":"Ajoolabady","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Death Discov."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3970","DOI":"10.1002\/cbf.3970","article-title":"Exploring the emerging bidirectional association between inflamm-aging and cellular senescence in organismal aging and disease","volume":"42","author":"Sharma","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Biochem. Funct."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1007\/s11357-024-01364-0","article-title":"Inflammation and aging-related disease: A transdisciplinary inflammaging framework","volume":"47","author":"Andonian","year":"2025","journal-title":"GeroScience"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1007\/s12016-021-08899-6","article-title":"Immunology of Aging: The Birth of Inflammaging","volume":"64","author":"Fulop","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Rev. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"168","article-title":"Cellular Senescence: What, Why, and How","volume":"29","author":"Regulski","year":"2017","journal-title":"Wounds Compend. Clin. Res. Pract."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2019.10.005","article-title":"Cellular Senescence: Defining a Path Forward","volume":"179","author":"Gorgoulis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1482","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-025-01480-7","article-title":"Hallmarks of cellular senescence: Biology, mechanisms, regulations","volume":"57","author":"Ajoolabady","year":"2025","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13338","DOI":"10.1111\/acel.13338","article-title":"Cellular aging beyond cellular senescence: Markers of senescence prior to cell cycle arrest in vitro and in vivo","volume":"20","author":"Ogrodnik","year":"2021","journal-title":"Aging Cell"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1007\/s11912-020-00977-w","article-title":"Biological and Functional Biomarkers of Aging: Definition, Characteristics, and How They Can Impact Everyday Cancer Treatment","volume":"22","author":"Colloca","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Oncol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"977","article-title":"Biomarkers of Aging and Relevant Evaluation Techniques: A Comprehensive Review","volume":"15","author":"Tao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Aging Dis."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1038\/s41514-025-00207-2","article-title":"Biomarkers of aging: Functional aspects still trump molecular parameters","volume":"11","author":"Furrer","year":"2025","journal-title":"npj Aging"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aging Biomarker Consortium, Bao, H., Cao, J., Chen, M., Chen, M., Chen, W., Chen, X., Chen, Y., Chen, Y., and Chen, Y. (2023). Biomarkers of aging. Sci. China Life Sci., 66, 893\u20131066.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11427-023-2305-0"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"LeDrew, M., Sadri, P., Peil, A., and Farahnak, Z. (2025). Muscle Biomarkers as Molecular Signatures for Early Detection and Monitoring of Muscle Health in Aging. Nutrients, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17172758"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1587438","DOI":"10.3389\/fragi.2025.1587438","article-title":"Circulatory titin and miR-451a are possible sarcopenia biomarkers in elderly people","volume":"6","author":"Mancuso","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front. Aging"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"279","article-title":"Identification of Osteoarthritis In-flamm-Aging Biomarkers by Integrating Bioinformatic Analysis and Machine Learning Strategies and the Clinical Validation","volume":"55","author":"Zhou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sichuan Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban = J. Sichuan Univ. Med. Sci. Ed."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1759720X231177116","DOI":"10.1177\/1759720X231177116","article-title":"Emerging molecular biomarkers in osteoarthritis pathology","volume":"15","author":"Sandhu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Musculoskelet. Dis."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1609","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00045.2024","article-title":"Biomarkers of aging: From molecules and surrogates to physiology and function","volume":"105","author":"Furrer","year":"2025","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1087318","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2023.1087318","article-title":"A novel digital biomarker of sarcopenia in frail elderly: New combination of gait parameters under dual-task walking","volume":"15","author":"Zhou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Aging Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7295","DOI":"10.1038\/s44318-025-00601-2","article-title":"Distinct senotypes in p16- and p21-positive cells across human and mouse aging tissues","volume":"44","author":"Saul","year":"2025","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1310466","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2024.1310466","article-title":"Relationship of the bone phenotype of the Klotho mutant mouse model of accelerated aging to changes in skeletal architecture that occur with chronological aging","volume":"15","author":"Verlinden","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115361","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bone.2020.115361","article-title":"Sirtuin 1 deficiency decreases bone mass and increases bone marrow adiposity in a mouse model of chronic energy deficiency","volume":"136","author":"Louvet","year":"2020","journal-title":"Bone"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4358","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-83991-7","article-title":"Inflammaging markers characteristic of advanced age show similar levels with frailty and dependency","volume":"11","author":"Alberro","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1162385","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2023.1162385","article-title":"Diagnostics of inflammaging in relation to sarcopenia","volume":"11","author":"Morawin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2400079","DOI":"10.1002\/adbi.202400079","article-title":"Biomarkers of Cellular Senescence and Aging: Current State-of-the-Art, Challenges and Future Perspectives","volume":"8","author":"Muthamil","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Biol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1054","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-79831-9","article-title":"Multi-pronged approach to human mesenchymal stromal cells senescence quantification with a focus on label-free methods","volume":"11","author":"Zhai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-323-85679-9.00015-5","article-title":"The Role of p53\/p21\/p16 in DNA-Damage Signaling and DNA Repair","volume":"26","author":"Kulaberoglu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Genome Stability"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mocell.2024.100113","article-title":"The role of p21 in cellular senescence and aging-related diseases","volume":"47","author":"Yan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mol. Cells"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1038\/s41418-022-01069-x","article-title":"Long-term p21 and p53 dynamics regulate the frequency of mitosis events and cell cycle arrest following radiation damage","volume":"30","author":"Tran","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Death Differ."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e154888","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI154888","article-title":"Cellular senescence and the skeleton: Pathophysiology and therapeutic implications","volume":"132","author":"Khosla","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4212","DOI":"10.1093\/emboj\/cdg417","article-title":"Reversal of human cellular senescence: Roles of the p53 and p16 pathways","volume":"22","author":"Krtolica","year":"2003","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R58","DOI":"10.1186\/ar4494","article-title":"p16INK4a and its regulator miR-24 link senescence and chondrocyte terminal differentiation-associated matrix remodeling in osteoarthritis","volume":"16","author":"Philipot","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101652","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmet.2022.101652","article-title":"p21 induces a senescence program and skeletal muscle dysfunction","volume":"67","author":"Englund","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1038\/s41418-020-0590-4","article-title":"Loss of p53 in mesenchymal stem cells promotes alteration of bone remodeling through negative regulation of osteoprotegerin","volume":"28","author":"Velletri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Death Differ."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112306","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exger.2023.112306","article-title":"Interaction of Klotho and sirtuins","volume":"182","author":"Rostamzadeh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Exp. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"030501","DOI":"10.11613\/BM.2019.030501","article-title":"Hallmarks of senescence and aging","volume":"29","author":"Dodig","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biochem. Med."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e18269","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.18269","article-title":"Distinct role of Klotho in long bone and craniofacial bone: Skeletal development, repair and regeneration","volume":"12","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13301","DOI":"10.1111\/acel.13301","article-title":"Role of sirtuins in bone biology: Potential implications for novel therapeutic strategies for osteoporosis","volume":"20","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Aging Cell"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661852","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2021.661852","article-title":"Protective Effect of SIRT1 Activator on the Knee with Osteoarthritis","volume":"12","author":"Zhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00061.2017","article-title":"Sarcopenia: Aging-Related Loss of Muscle Mass and Function","volume":"99","author":"Larsson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1186\/s43166-023-00213-w","article-title":"Biomarkers of sarcopenia: An unmet need","volume":"50","author":"Elwakil","year":"2023","journal-title":"Egypt. Rheumatol. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1007\/s41999-020-00355-6","article-title":"Osteosarcopenia: Beyond age-related muscle and bone loss","volume":"11","author":"Belchior","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Geriatr. Med."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1038\/s41413-024-00346-4","article-title":"Ageing-related bone and immunity changes: Insights into the complex interplay between the skeleton and the immune system","volume":"12","author":"Mi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Bone Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1007\/s40134-017-0218-8","article-title":"Age-Related Changes in the Bone Marrow","volume":"5","author":"Griffith","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Radiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1648","DOI":"10.1002\/art.39622","article-title":"Mesenchymal Stem Cell Alterations in Bone Marrow Lesions in Patients with Hip Osteoarthritis","volume":"68","author":"Campbell","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"FSO228","DOI":"10.4155\/fsoa-2017-0055","article-title":"Targeting subchondral bone mesenchymal stem cell activities for intrinsic joint repair in osteoarthritis","volume":"3","author":"Ilas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Futur. Sci. OA"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5197983","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/5197983","article-title":"The Analysis of In Vivo Aging in Human Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stromal Cells Using Colony-Forming Unit-Fibroblast Assay and the CD45lowCD271+ Phenotype","volume":"2019","author":"Ganguly","year":"2019","journal-title":"Stem Cells Int."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ganguly, P., Burska, A.N., Davis, C.L., El-Jawhari, J.J., Giannoudis, P.V., and Jones, E.A. (2020). Intrinsic Type 1 Interferon (IFN1) Profile of Uncultured Human Bone Marrow CD45lowCD271+ Multipotential Stromal Cells (BM-MSCs): The Impact of Donor Age, Culture Expansion and IFN\u03b1 and IFN\u03b2 Stimulation. Biomedicines, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines8070214"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ganguly, P., Fiz, N., Beitia, M., Owston, H.E., Delgado, D., Jones, E., and S\u00e1nchez, M. (2022). Effect of Combined Intraosseous and Intraarticular Infiltrations of Autologous Platelet-Rich Plasma on Subchondral Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stromal Cells from Patients with Hip Osteoarthritis. J. Clin. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11133891"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vun, J., Iqbal, N., Jones, E., and Ganguly, P. (2023). Anti-Aging Potential of Platelet Rich Plasma (PRP): Evidence from Osteoarthritis (OA) and Applications in Senescence and Inflammaging. Bioengineering, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering10080987"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wilson, B.J., Owston, H.E., Iqbal, N., Giannoudis, P.V., McGonagle, D., Pandit, H., Pampadykandathil, L.P., Jones, E., and Ganguly, P. (2024). In Vitro Osteogenesis Study of Shell Nacre Cement with Older and Young Donor Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem\/Stromal Cells. Bioengineering, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering11020143"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.3803\/EnM.2023.1727","article-title":"Skeletal Senescence with Aging and Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"38","author":"Farr","year":"2023","journal-title":"Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100330","DOI":"10.1016\/j.metop.2024.100330","article-title":"Understanding the impact of diabetes on bone health: A clinical review","volume":"24","author":"Sharma","year":"2024","journal-title":"Metab. Open"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1835","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-019-4934-x","article-title":"Cellular senescence: At the nexus between ageing and diabetes","volume":"62","author":"Palmer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"glae297","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/glae297","article-title":"An Expert Consensus Statement on Biomarkers of Aging for Use in Intervention Studies","volume":"80","author":"Perri","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. Ser. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aging Biomarker Consortium, Suo, J., Gan, Y., Xie, Y., Xu, S., Wang, J., Chen, D., Chen, L., Deng, L., and Feng, S. (2023). A framework of bi-omarkers for skeletal aging: A consensus statement by the Aging Biomarker Consortium. Life Med., 2, lnad045.","DOI":"10.1093\/lifemedi\/lnad045"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102044","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2023.102044","article-title":"Biomarkers of aging in frailty and age-associated disorders: State of the art and future perspective","volume":"91","author":"Salvioli","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ageing Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1628434","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2025.1628434","article-title":"Bone turnover markers (\u03b2-CTX, PINP, ALP) in osteoporosis: Correlation with bone loss and fracture risk stratification","volume":"16","author":"Wu","year":"2026","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70149","DOI":"10.1111\/acel.70149","article-title":"MskAge\u2014An Epigenetic Biomarker of Musculoskeletal Age Derived From a Genetic Algorithm Islands Model","volume":"24","author":"Green","year":"2025","journal-title":"Aging Cell"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101422","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2021.101422","article-title":"Immunosenescence and inflammaging in the aging process: Age-related diseases or longevity?","volume":"71","author":"Santoro","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ageing Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1490302","DOI":"10.3389\/fragi.2024.1490302","article-title":"The 3 I\u2019s of immunity and aging: Immunosenescence, inflammaging, and immune resilience","volume":"5","author":"Wrona","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Aging"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e25538","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e25538","article-title":"Recent advances in senescence-associated secretory phenotype and osteoporosis","volume":"10","author":"Fan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1038\/s41413-025-00448-7","article-title":"Cellular senescence and other age-related mechanisms in skeletal diseases","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Bone Res."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841612","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2022.841612","article-title":"The Role of Senescence-Associated Secretory Phenotype in Bone Loss","volume":"10","author":"Zhu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1186\/s13075-022-02859-x","article-title":"Senescence in osteoarthritis: From mechanism to potential treatment","volume":"24","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"F\u00f6ger-Samwald, U., Kerschan-Schindl, K., Butylina, M., and Pietschmann, P. (2022). Age Related Osteoporosis: Targeting Cellular Senescence. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23052701"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115518","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2025.115518","article-title":"Accelerated T-cell senescence and persistent inflammation in older adults with rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"165","author":"Cezar","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1520","DOI":"10.1177\/0963689717721201","article-title":"Age-related Changes in Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stromal Cells: A Potential Impact on Osteoporosis and Osteoarthritis Development","volume":"26","author":"Ganguly","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Transplant."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.70036","article-title":"The Immune System and Cellular Senescence: A Complex Interplay in Aging and Disease","volume":"177","author":"Ayoub","year":"2026","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aitella, E., Azzellino, G., Romano, C., Ginaldi, L., and De Martinis, M. (2025). Rheumatoid Arthritis and Osteoporosis as Prototypes of Immunosenescence in Osteoimmunology: Molecular Pathways of Inflammaging and Targeted Therapies. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26199268"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Falvino, A., Bonanni, R., Tarantino, U., Tancredi, V., and Cariati, I. (2025). Which Approach to Choose to Counteract Musculoskeletal Aging? A Comprehensive Review on the Multiple Effects of Exercise. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26157573"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1017\/S0029665124007432","article-title":"Nutrition in the prevention and treatment of skeletal muscle ageing and sarcopenia: A single nutrient, a whole food and a whole diet approach","volume":"84","author":"Granic","year":"2025","journal-title":"Proc. Nutr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e24486","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0024486","article-title":"Feeding blueberry diets in early life prevent senescence of osteoblasts and bone loss in ovariectomized adult female rats","volume":"6","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"vkaf380","DOI":"10.1093\/jimmun\/vkaf380","article-title":"Workshop report on inflammaging: Mechanisms, markers, and intervention strategies","volume":"215","author":"Liu","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116606","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2024.116606","article-title":"Senolytics ameliorate the failure of bone regeneration through the cell senescence-related inflammatory signalling pathway","volume":"175","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3182","DOI":"10.1177\/03635465251381763","article-title":"Senolytic Combination of Dasatinib and Quercetin Promotes Tendon-to-Bone Healing by Mitigating Age-Related Senescence in Rats","volume":"53","author":"Cai","year":"2025","journal-title":"Am. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saliev, T., and Singh, P.B. (2025). Targeting Senescence: A Review of Senolytics and Senomorphics in Anti-Aging Interventions. Biomolecules, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom15060860"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e67","DOI":"10.1016\/S2666-7568(21)00300-7","article-title":"The costs and benefits of senotherapeutics for human health","volume":"3","author":"Raffaele","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Healthy Longev."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1007\/s11914-021-00675-x","article-title":"The Gut Microbiome: A New Frontier in Musculoskeletal Research","volume":"19","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Osteoporos. Rep."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1002\/jbmr.2765","article-title":"The Microbiome and Musculoskeletal Conditions of Aging: A Review of Evidence for Impact and Potential Therapeutics","volume":"31","author":"Steves","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Bone Miner. Res."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.5301\/jsrd.5000228","article-title":"Musculoskeletal Involvement in Systemic Sclerosis: An Unexplored Aspect of the Disease","volume":"2","author":"Nagy","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Scleroderma Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_97","first-page":"274","article-title":"Musculoskeletal involvement in systemic sclerosis","volume":"62","author":"Wielosz","year":"2024","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105864","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbspin.2025.105864","article-title":"Frailty during polymyalgia rheumatica, giant cell arteritis and other inflammatory rheumatic diseases","volume":"92","author":"Tournadre","year":"2025","journal-title":"Jt. Bone Spine"},{"key":"ref_99","first-page":"e80880","article-title":"Polymyalgia Rheumatica and Giant Cell Arteritis: A Geriatric Perspective","volume":"17","author":"Muhammad","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e826","DOI":"10.1016\/S2665-9913(21)00361-1","article-title":"A shared basis for overlapping immunopathologies in giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica","volume":"3","author":"Mackie","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2673","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-023-02560-9","article-title":"Biomarkers of aging remain elusive as researchers try to slow the biological clock","volume":"29","author":"May","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70353","DOI":"10.1111\/acel.70353","article-title":"Genomic Perspective on Heterogeneity of Organs and Body Aging","volume":"25","author":"Salimi","year":"2026","journal-title":"Aging Cell"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Biomarkers of Aging Consortium, Herzog, C.M.S., Goeminne, L.J.E., Poganik, J.R., Barzilai, N., Belsky, D.W., Betts-LaCroix, J., Chen, B.H., Chen, M., and Cohen, A.A. (2024). Challenges and recommendations for the translation of biomarkers of aging. Nat. Aging, 4, 1372\u20131383.","DOI":"10.1038\/s43587-024-00683-3"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-023-02784-9","article-title":"Validation of biomarkers of aging","volume":"30","author":"Moqri","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.3390\/organoids3030011","article-title":"Organoids and 3D In Vitro Models as a Platform for Precision Medicine (PM): An Update","volume":"3","author":"Ganguly","year":"2024","journal-title":"Organoids"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1186\/s13018-024-04535-z","article-title":"Iron accumulation induced by hepcidin1 knockout accelerates the progression of aging osteoporosis","volume":"19","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Orthop. Surg. Res."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ziae160","DOI":"10.1093\/jbmrpl\/ziae160","article-title":"Discoidin Domain Receptor 1 impacts bone microarchitecture with aging in female mice","volume":"9","author":"Denman","year":"2025","journal-title":"JBMR Plus"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1265","DOI":"10.1093\/bbb\/zbad103","article-title":"Interleukin-21 knockout reduces bone loss in ovariectomized mice by inhibiting osteoclastogenesis","volume":"87","author":"Hou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5655","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-33008-2","article-title":"Deletion of skeletal muscle Akt1\/2 causes osteosarcopenia and reduces lifespan in mice","volume":"13","author":"Sasako","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2023.113329","article-title":"PRMT5 mediates FoxO1 methylation and subcellular localization to regulate lipophagy in myogenic progenitors","volume":"42","author":"Kim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70007","DOI":"10.1002\/jcsm.70007","article-title":"Skeletal Muscle-Specific Deletion of E3 Ligase Asb2 Enhances Muscle Mass and Strength","volume":"16","author":"Jang","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Cachex-Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ganguly, P., Toghill, B., and Pathak, S. (2021). Aging, Bone Marrow and Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS): Recent Advances and Future Perspectives. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms222212225"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.3390\/organoids2030010","article-title":"Organoid Models and Next-Generation Sequencing for Bone Marrow and Related Disorders","volume":"2","author":"Rausch","year":"2023","journal-title":"Organoids"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ganguly, P. (2026). Intersection of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Regenerative Medicine in Musculoskeletal (MSK) Diseases: A Narrative Review. Appl. Biosci., 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/applbiosci5010022"}],"container-title":["Biomedicines"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9059\/14\/7\/1486\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T18:01:29Z","timestamp":1782842489000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9059\/14\/7\/1486"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]]},"references-count":114,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["biomedicines14071486"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/biomedicines14071486","relation":{},"ISSN":["2227-9059"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2227-9059","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]]}}}