{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T00:25:37Z","timestamp":1777422337787,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,15]],"date-time":"2025-08-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755216000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P.","award":["UID\/00285"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/00285"]}]},{"name":"National Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P.","award":["LA\/P\/0112\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LA\/P\/0112\/2020"]}]},{"name":"National Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P.","award":["UID\/50025\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/50025\/2020"]}]},{"name":"National Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P.","award":["LA\/P\/0037\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LA\/P\/0037\/2020"]}]},{"name":"National Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P.","award":["SFRH\/BD\/130107\/2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BD\/130107\/2017"]}]},{"name":"National Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P.","award":["COVID\/BD\/152729\/2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["COVID\/BD\/152729\/2022"]}]},{"name":"Ana Rita Cardoso","award":["UID\/00285"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/00285"]}]},{"name":"Ana Rita Cardoso","award":["LA\/P\/0112\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LA\/P\/0112\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Ana Rita Cardoso","award":["UID\/50025\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/50025\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Ana Rita Cardoso","award":["LA\/P\/0037\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LA\/P\/0037\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Ana Rita Cardoso","award":["SFRH\/BD\/130107\/2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BD\/130107\/2017"]}]},{"name":"Ana Rita Cardoso","award":["COVID\/BD\/152729\/2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["COVID\/BD\/152729\/2022"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biosensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This work describes a non-enzymatic electrochemical glucose biosensor combining for the first time molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) for glucose concentration and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) on screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPEs), where both MIPs and AuNPs were assembled in situ. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) was used to evaluate the analytical performance of the sensor, which has a linear range between 1.0 \u00b5M and 1.0 mM when standard solutions are prepared in buffer. Direct measurement of glucose was performed by chronoamperometry, measuring the oxidation current generated during direct glucose oxidation. The selectivity was tested against ascorbic acid and the results confirmed a selective discrimination of the electrode for glucose. Overall, the work presented here represents a promising tool for tracking glucose levels in serum. The use of glucose MIP on the electrode surface allows the concentration of glucose, resulting in lower detection limits, and the use of AuNPs reduces the potential required for the oxidation of glucose, which increases selectivity. In addition, this possible combination of two analytical measurements following different theoretical concepts can contribute to the accuracy of the analytical measurements. This combination can also be extended to other biomolecules that can be electrochemically oxidised at lower potentials.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bios15080537","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,15]],"date-time":"2025-08-15T14:24:28Z","timestamp":1755267868000},"page":"537","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Enzyme-Free Monitoring of Glucose Using Molecularly Imprinted Polymers and Gold Nanoparticles"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8641-0865","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana Rita Aires","family":"Cardoso","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"BioMark@UC\/CEMMPRE (Centre for Mechanical Engineering, Materials and Processes)-ARISE (Advanced Production and Intelligent Systems), Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Coimbra, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"CENIMAT|i3N, Department of Materials Science, School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon and CEMOP\/UNINOVA, Campus de Caparica, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5446-2759","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro Miguel C\u00e2ndido","family":"Barquinha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CENIMAT|i3N, Department of Materials Science, School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon and CEMOP\/UNINOVA, Campus de Caparica, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9936-7336","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Goreti Ferreira","family":"Sales","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"BioMark@UC\/CEMMPRE (Centre for Mechanical Engineering, Materials and Processes)-ARISE (Advanced Production and Intelligent Systems), Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Coimbra, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012004","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/214\/1\/012004","article-title":"Density Functional Theory (DFT) Study of Molecularly Imprinted Polymer (MIP) Methacrylic Acid (MAA) with D-Glucose","volume":"214","author":"Fauziah","year":"2017","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29122","DOI":"10.1039\/C7RA00593H","article-title":"RSC Advances nanoplates and gold nanoparticles","volume":"7","author":"Cai","year":"2017","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfda.2014.12.001","article-title":"ScienceDirect Recent developments in blood glucose sensors","volume":"23","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Food Drug Anal."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bruen, D., Delaney, C., and Florea, L. (2017). Diamond, Glucose Sensing for Diabetes Monitoring: Recent Developments. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17081866"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9628281","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/9628281","article-title":"Review Article Noninvasive Glucose Measurement Using Machine Learning and Neural Network Methods and Correlation with Heart Rate Variability","volume":"2020","author":"Gusev","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Sens."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sabu, C., Henna, T.K., Raphey, V.R., Nivitha, K.P., and Pramod, K. (2019). Biosensors and Bioelectronics Advanced biosensors for glucose and insulin. Biosens. Bioelectron., 141.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2019.03.034"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7671","DOI":"10.1039\/D0CS00304B","article-title":"Electrochemical glucose sensors in diabetes management: An updated review (2010\u20132020)","volume":"49","author":"Teymourian","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1962.tb13623.x","article-title":"Electrode Systems for Continuous Monitoring in Cardiovascular Surgery","volume":"102","author":"Clark","year":"1962","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonzales, W.V., Mobashsher, A.T., and Abbosh, A. (2019). The Progress of Glucose Monitoring\u2014A Review of Invasive to Minimally and Non-Invasive Techniques, Devices and Sensors. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19040800"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2230003","DOI":"10.1142\/S1793545822300038","article-title":"Blood glucose sensors and recent advances: A review","volume":"15","author":"Peng","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Innov. Opt. Heal. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1093\/clinchem\/30.6.829","article-title":"Self testing, an emerging component of clinical chemistry","volume":"30","author":"Free","year":"1984","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cunningham, D.D., and Stenken, J.A. (2009). Commercially Available Continuous Glucose Monitoring Systems. In Vivo Glucose Sensing, John Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470567319"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1156","DOI":"10.1007\/s12010-019-03049-3","article-title":"Real-Time and Online Monitoring of Glucose Contents by Using Molecular Imprinted Polymer-Based IDEs Sensor","volume":"189","author":"Asghar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nguyen, H.H., Lee, S.H., Lee, U.J., Fermin, C.D., and Kim, M. (2019). Immobilized Enzymes in Biosensor Applications. Materials, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma12010121"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2017.08.022","article-title":"A selective glucose sensor based on direct oxidation on a bimetal catalyst with a molecular imprinted polymer","volume":"99","author":"Je","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5032","DOI":"10.1039\/C8CC01678J","article-title":"Challenges and perspectives in continuous","volume":"54","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.8b00171","article-title":"Molecularly Imprinted Polymers","volume":"119","author":"Belbruno","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"020015","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4993334","article-title":"The effect of gold nanoparticles modified electrode on the glucose sensing performance","volume":"1865","author":"Razak","year":"2017","journal-title":"AIP Conf. Proc."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caldara, M., Kulpa, J., Lowdon, J., Cleij, T., Dili\u00ebn, H., Eersels, K., and van Grinsven, B. (2023). Recent Advances in Molecularly Imprinted Polymers for Glucose Monitoring: From Fundamental Research to Commercial Application. Chemosensors, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/chemosensors11010032"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2025.125219","article-title":"Molecularly imprinted polymer-based biosensor for detection of salivary glucose in diabetes","volume":"671","author":"Vaidya","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2016.12.046","article-title":"A potentiometric non-enzymatic glucose sensor using a molecularly imprinted layer bonded on a conducting polymer","volume":"91","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msec.2019.01.001","article-title":"A nonenzymatic electrochemical glucose sensor based on molecularly imprinted polymer and its application in measuring saliva glucose","volume":"98","author":"Diouf","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. C"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1007\/s10047-009-0473-4","article-title":"Development of an enzyme-free glucose sensor using the gate effect of a molecularly imprinted polymer","volume":"12","author":"Yoshimi","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Artif. Organs"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2015.07.128","article-title":"Molecular imprinting method for fabricating novel glucose sensor: Polyvinyl acetate electrode reinforced by MnO2\/CuO loaded on graphene oxide nanoparticles","volume":"194","author":"Farid","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1243","DOI":"10.1002\/elan.201600721","article-title":"Impedimetric Enzyme-Free Detection of Glucose via a Computation-Designed Molecularly Imprinted Electrochemical Sensor Fabricated on Porous Ni Foam","volume":"29","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Electroanalysis"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34983","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.8b13317","article-title":"Molecularly Imprinted Artificial Biointerface for an Enzyme-Free Glucose Transistor","volume":"10","author":"Kajisa","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1379","DOI":"10.1007\/s10008-019-04237-1","article-title":"Non-enzymatic glucose sensor based on molecularly imprinted polymer: A theoretical, strategy fabrication and application","volume":"23","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Solid State Electrochem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sehit, E., Drzazgowska, J., Buchenau, D., Yesildag, C., Lensen, M., and Altintas, Z. (2020). Ultrasensitive nonenzymatic electrochemical glucose sensor based on gold nanoparticles and molecularly imprinted polymers. Biosens. Bioelectron., 165.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2020.112432"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1801070","DOI":"10.1002\/admi.201801070","article-title":"A Novel AuNP-Based Glucose Oxidase Mimic with Enhanced Activity and Selectivity Constructed by Molecular Imprinting and O2-Containing Nanoemulsion Embedding","volume":"5","author":"Fan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Serrano, V.M., Silva, I.S.P., Cardoso, A.R., and Sales, M.G.F. (2022). Carbon Electrodes with Gold Nanoparticles for the Electrochemical Detection of miRNA 21-5p. Chemosensors, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/chemosensors10050189"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.anchem.012809.102211","article-title":"Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy","volume":"3","author":"Chang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4407","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.langmuir.7b00359","article-title":"A Simulation-based Approach to Determining Electron Transfer Rates using Square-Wave Voltammetry","volume":"33","author":"Kurnik","year":"2017","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Kane, K. (2000). Modern Analytic Chemistry. Modern Analytical Chemistry, McGraw-Hill Higher Education. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tonelli, D., Scavetta, E., and Gualandi, I. (2019). Electrochemical Deposition of Nanomaterials for Electrochemical Sensing. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19051186"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chiang, H.-C., Wang, Y., Zhang, Q., and Levon, K. (2019). Optimization of the Electrodeposition of Gold Nanoparticles for the Application of Highly Sensitive. Biosensors, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios9020050"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2012.04.043","article-title":"Molecularly imprinted polymers based electrochemical sensor for bovine hemoglobin recognition","volume":"168","author":"Kan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2017.10.114","article-title":"In-situ generated molecularly imprinted material for chloramphenicol electrochemical sensing in waters down to the nanomolar level","volume":"256","author":"Cardoso","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gomes, R.S., Gomez-Rodr\u00edguez, B.A., Fernandes, R., Sales, M.G.F., Moreira, F.T.C., and Dutra, R.F. (2021). Plastic antibody of polypyrrole\/multiwall carbon nanotubes on screen-printed electrodes for cystatin C detection. Biosensors, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios11060175"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2019.07.050","article-title":"Molecularly imprinted polymer SPE sensor for analysis of CA-125 on serum","volume":"1082","author":"Rebelo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6025","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2005.11.052","article-title":"Electrochemical sensors based on conducting polymer-polypyrrole","volume":"51","author":"Malinauskas","year":"2006","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2013.02.012","article-title":"Smart plastic antibody material (SPAM) tailored on disposable screen printed electrodes for protein recognition: Application to myoglobin detection","volume":"45","author":"Moreira","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1039\/a807124a","article-title":"The mechanisms of pyrrole electropolymerization","volume":"29","author":"Sadki","year":"2000","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."}],"container-title":["Biosensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/15\/8\/537\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:28:34Z","timestamp":1760034514000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/15\/8\/537"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,15]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8]]}},"alternative-id":["bios15080537"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bios15080537","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6374"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6374","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,15]]}}}