{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T01:24:16Z","timestamp":1760059456991,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,14]],"date-time":"2025-06-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1749859200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)","award":["CPUP UIDB\/00050\/2020","PTDC\/PSI-GER\/5845\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CPUP UIDB\/00050\/2020","PTDC\/PSI-GER\/5845\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: The mechanisms underlying the positive association between reading and rhythmic skills remain unclear. Our goal was to systematically test between two major explanations: the Temporal Sampling Framework (TSF), which highlights the relation between rhythm and speech encoding, and a competing explanation based on rhythm\u2019s role in enhancing prediction within visual and auditory sequences. Methods: We compared beat versus duration perception for their associations with encoding and sequence learning (prediction-related) tasks, using both visual and auditory sequences. We also compared these associations for Portuguese vs. Greek participants, since Portuguese stress-timed rhythm is more compatible with music-like beats lasting around 500 ms, in contrast to the syllable-timed rhythm of Greek. If rhythm acts via speech encoding, its effects should be more salient in Portuguese. Results: Consistent with the TSF\u2019s predictions, we found a significant association between beat perception and auditory encoding in Portuguese but not in Greek participants. Correlations between time perception and sequence learning in both modalities were either null or insufficiently supported in both groups. Conclusions: Altogether, the evidence supported the TSF-related predictions in detriment of the Rhythm-as-Predictor (RaP) hypothesis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci15060642","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,16]],"date-time":"2025-06-16T10:47:22Z","timestamp":1750070842000},"page":"642","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Is It About Speech or About Prediction? Testing Between Two Accounts of the Rhythm\u2013Reading Link"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2240-1828","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Susana","family":"Silva","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Psychology Department, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Ana Rita","family":"Batista","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Psychology Department, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Nath\u00e9rcia Lima","family":"Torres","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Psychology Department, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-4071-4782","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"Sousa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Psychology Department, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5354-0989","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aikaterini","family":"Liapi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Neuropsychology and Behavioral Neuroscience, School of Psychology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, University Campus, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2937-6389","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Styliani","family":"Bairami","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Neuropsychology and Behavioral Neuroscience, School of Psychology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, University Campus, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2159-7032","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vasiliki","family":"Folia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Neuropsychology and Behavioral Neuroscience, School of Psychology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, University Campus, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1102","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-1523.29.6.1102","article-title":"Modeling effects of rhythmic context on perceived duration: A comparison of interval and entrainment approaches to short-interval timing","volume":"29","author":"McAuley","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. 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