{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,30]],"date-time":"2026-10-30T00:36:16Z","timestamp":1793320576155,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":85,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,3]],"date-time":"2025-06-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1748908800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>There is extensive evidence that distributed practice produces superior learning to massed practice, predominantly from laboratory studies often featuring decontextualized learning. A systematic review of applied research was undertaken to assess the impact of distributed practice on classroom learning. Inclusion criteria were classroom studies with learning materials and timescales relevant to curriculum-based learning. The screening of over 3000 articles resulted in 22 reports containing 31 effect sizes (N &gt; 3000). A meta-analysis found a moderate effect in favor of distributed over massed practice (d = 0.54, 95% CI [0.31, 0.77]). Although a comprehensive quantitative moderator analysis was not possible due to the number of studies, generally larger effect sizes were associated with studies that featured longer retention intervals, had learners at higher education levels, and had fewer re-exposures to the materials.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bs15060771","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,3]],"date-time":"2025-06-03T06:21:51Z","timestamp":1748931711000},"page":"771","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["The Distributed Practice Effect on Classroom Learning: A Meta-Analytic Review of Applied Research"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Rhys D.","family":"Mawson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Education, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9017-3615","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sean H. K.","family":"Kang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Education, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1409","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-021-09595-9","article-title":"Retrieval practice consistently benefits student learning: A systematic review of applied research in schools and classrooms","volume":"33","author":"Agarwal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9604.12074","article-title":"Inclusive education in Australia: Rhetoric, reality and the road ahead","volume":"30","author":"Anderson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Support for Learning"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority (2023, October 01). F-10 curriculum: Mathematics\u2014Key ideas, Available online: https:\/\/www.australiancurriculum.edu.au\/f-10-curriculum\/mathematics\/key-ideas\/."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"* Barzagar Nazari\n                  K.\n                \n                \n                  Ebersbach\n                  M.\n                \n              \n              Distributed practice: Rarely realized in self-regulated mathematical learning\n              Frontiers in Psychology\n              2018\n              9\n              2170\n              10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.02170","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.02170"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"* Barzagar Nazari\n                  K.\n                \n                \n                  Ebersbach\n                  M.\n                \n              \n              Distributed practice in mathematics: Recommendable especially for students on a medium performance level?\n              Trends in Neuroscience and Education\n              2019a\n              17\n              100122\n              10.1016\/j.tine.2019.100122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tine.2019.100122"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"* Barzagar Nazari\n                  K.\n                \n                \n                  Ebersbach\n                  M.\n                \n              \n              Distributing mathematical practice of third and seventh graders: Applicability of the spacing effect in the classroom\n              Applied Cognitive Psychology\n              2019b\n              33\n              2\n              288\n              298\n              10.1002\/acp.3485","DOI":"10.1002\/acp.3485"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1177\/0098628320979680","article-title":"Using distributed practice to improve students\u2019 attitudes and performance in statistics","volume":"49","author":"Benson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Teaching of Psychology"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.3102\/0013189X031008018","article-title":"Comment: Educational research: The hardest science of all","volume":"31","author":"Berliner","year":"2002","journal-title":"Educational Researcher"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Gernsbacher, M. A., Pew, R. W., and Pomerantz, J. R. (2011). Making things hard on yourself, but in a good way: Creating desirable difficulties to enhance learning. Psychology and the real world: Essays illustrating fundamental contributions to society, Worth Publishers."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"* Bloom\n                  K. C.\n                \n                \n                  Shuell\n                  T. J.\n                \n              \n              Effects of massed and distributed practice on the learning and retention of second-language vocabulary\n              The Journal of Educational Research\n              1981\n              74\n              4\n              245\n              248\n              10.1080\/00220671.1981.10885317","DOI":"10.1080\/00220671.1981.10885317"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Breckwoldt, J., Ludwig, J. R., Plener, J., Schroder, T., Gruber, H., Peters, H., Breckwoldt, J., Ludwig, J. R., Plener, J., Schroder, T., Gruber, H., and Peters, H. (2016). Differences in procedural knowledge after a \u201cspaced\u201d and a \u201cmassed\u201d version of an intensive course in emergency medicine, investigating a very short spacing interval. BMC Medical Education, 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12909-016-0770-6"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"* Buzzelli\n                  A. A.\n                \n              \n              Twitter in the classroom: Determining the effectiveness of utilizing a microblog for distributed practice in concept learning\n              Doctoral dissertation\n              Robert Morris University\n              2014"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"* Camp\n                  J. S.\n                \n              \n              The effects of distributed practice upon learning and retention in introductory algebra\n              Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences\n              1973\n              34\n              5-A\n              2455\n              2456"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1027\/1618-3169.56.4.236","article-title":"Optimizing distributed practice: Theoretical analysis and practical implications","volume":"56","author":"Cepeda","year":"2009","journal-title":"Experimental Psychology"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.132.3.354","article-title":"Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis","volume":"132","author":"Cepeda","year":"2006","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1095","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2008.02209.x","article-title":"Spacing effects in learning: A temporal ridgeline of optimal retention","volume":"19","author":"Cepeda","year":"2008","journal-title":"Psychological Science"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Higgins, J. P. T., and Thomas, J. (2023). Chapter 10: Analysing data and undertaking meta-analyses. Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of intervention (version 6.4), Cochrane. Available online: https:\/\/training.cochrane.org\/handbook\/current."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.43.8.627","article-title":"The spacing effect: A case study in the failure to apply the results of psychological research","volume":"43","author":"Dempster","year":"1988","journal-title":"American Psychologist"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Department of Education and Training (2023, April 12). High impact teaching strategies: Excellence in teaching and learning, Available online: https:\/\/www.education.vic.gov.au\/school\/teachers\/teachingresources\/practice\/improve\/Pages\/hits.aspx."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Donoghue, G. M., and Hattie, J. A. C. (2021). A meta-analysis of ten learning techniques. Frontiers in Education, 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2021.581216"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-9010.84.5.795","article-title":"A meta-analytic review of the distribution of practice effect: Now you see it, now you don\u2019t","volume":"84","author":"Donovan","year":"1999","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Psychology"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1037\/stl0000024","article-title":"Practice tests, spaced practice, and successive relearning: Tips for classroom use and for guiding students\u2019 learning","volume":"1","author":"Dunlosky","year":"2015","journal-title":"Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1177\/1529100612453266","article-title":"Improving students\u2019 learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology","volume":"14","author":"Dunlosky","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychological Science in the Public Interest"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ebbinghaus, H. (1885\/1913). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology, Teachers College, Columbia University.","DOI":"10.1037\/10011-000"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"* Ebersbach\n                  M.\n                \n                \n                  Barzagar Nazari\n                  K.\n                \n              \n              Implementing distributed practice in statistics courses: Benefits for retention and transfer\n              Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition\n              2020\n              9\n              4\n              532\n              541\n              10.1037\/h0101860","DOI":"10.1037\/h0101860"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1026\/0049-8637\/a000259","article-title":"Using spacing to promote lasting learning in educational contexts","volume":"54","author":"Ebersbach","year":"2022","journal-title":"Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Entwicklungspsychologie und P\u00e4dagogische Psychologie"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"* Emeny\n                  W. G.\n                \n                \n                  Hartwig\n                  M. K.\n                \n                \n                  Rohrer\n                  D.\n                \n              \n              Spaced mathematics practice improves test scores and reduces overconfidence\n              Applied Cognitive Psychology\n              2021\n              35\n              4\n              1082\n              1089\n              10.1002\/acp.3814","DOI":"10.1002\/acp.3814"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"* Foot-Seymour\n                  V.\n                \n                \n                  Foot\n                  J.\n                \n                \n                  Wiseheart\n                  M.\n                \n              \n              Judging credibility: Can spaced lessons help students think more critically online?\n              Applied Cognitive Psychology\n              2019\n              33\n              6\n              1032\n              1043\n              10.1002\/acp.3539","DOI":"10.1002\/acp.3539"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"* Foot-Seymour\n                  V.\n                \n                \n                  Wiseheart\n                  M.\n                \n              \n              Judging the credibility of websites: An effectiveness trial of the spacing effect in the elementary classroom\n              Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications\n              2022\n              7\n              5\n              10.1186\/s41235-022-00358-w","DOI":"10.1186\/s41235-022-00358-w"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1088","DOI":"10.3758\/s13421-019-00918-4","article-title":"Why does interleaving improve math learning? The contributions of discriminative contrast and distributed practice","volume":"47","author":"Foster","year":"2019","journal-title":"Memory & Cognition"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tine.2015.01.001","article-title":"The effect of distributed practice: Neuroscience, cognition, and education","volume":"4","author":"Gerbier","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trends in Neuroscience and Education"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"010136","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevPhysEducRes.18.010136","article-title":"Problem solving in basic physics: Effective self-explanations based on four elements with support from retrieval practice","volume":"18","author":"Gjerde","year":"2022","journal-title":"Physical Review Physics Education Research"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"* Goossens\n                  N. A.\n                \n                \n                  Camp\n                  G.\n                \n                \n                  Verkoeijen\n                  P. P.\n                \n                \n                  Tabbers\n                  H. K.\n                \n                \n                  Zwaan\n                  R. A.\n                \n              \n              Spreading the words: A spacing effect in vocabulary learning\n              Journal of Cognitive Psychology\n              2012\n              24\n              8\n              965\n              971\n              10.1080\/20445911.2012.722617","DOI":"10.1080\/20445911.2012.722617"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"* Greving\n                  C. E.\n                \n                \n                  Richter\n                  T.\n                \n              \n              Distributed learning in the classroom: Effects of rereading schedules depend on time of test\n              Frontiers in Psychology\n              2019\n              9\n              2517\n              10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.02517","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.02517"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Greving, C. E., and Richter, T. (2021). Beyond the distributed practice effect: Is distributed learning also effective for learning with non-repeated text materials?. Frontiers in Psychology, 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.685245"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"* Grote\n                  M. G.\n                \n              \n              Distributed versus massed practice in high school physics\n              School Science and Mathematics\n              1995\n              95\n              2\n              97\n              101\n              10.1111\/j.1949-8594.1995.tb15736.x","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1949-8594.1995.tb15736.x"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"732","DOI":"10.1002\/acp.3507","article-title":"Putting evidence-based claims to the test: A multi-site classroom study of retrieval practice and spaced practice","volume":"33","author":"Gurung","year":"2019","journal-title":"Applied Cognitive Psychology"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16013","DOI":"10.1038\/npjscilearn.2016.13","article-title":"Learning strategies: A synthesis and conceptual model","volume":"1","author":"Hattie","year":"2016","journal-title":"npj Science of Learning"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Higgins, J. P. T., and Thomas, J. (2023). Choosing effect measures and computing estimates of effect. Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of intervention (version 6.4), Cochrane. Available online: https:\/\/training.cochrane.org\/handbook\/current."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"* Holdan\n                  E. G.\n                \n              \n              A comparison of the effects of traditional, exploratory, distributed, and a combination of distributed and exploratory practice on initial learning, transfer, and retention of verbal problem types in first-year algebra\n              Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences\n              1986\n              46\n              9-A\n              2542\n              Available online: http:\/\/ovidsp.ovid.com\/ovidweb.cgi?T=JS&PAGE=reference&D=psyc2&NEWS=N&AN=1986-55259-001\n              (accessed on 16 May 2023)"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1086\/374692","article-title":"A meta-analysis of the spacing effect in verbal learning: Implications for research on advertising repetition and consumer memory","volume":"30","author":"Janiszewski","year":"2003","journal-title":"Journal of Consumer Research"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1177\/2372732215624708","article-title":"Spaced repetition promotes efficient and effective learning","volume":"3","author":"Kang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.learninstruc.2014.11.001","article-title":"Spacing in a simulated undergraduate classroom: Long-term benefits for factual and higher-level learning","volume":"36","author":"Kapler","year":"2015","journal-title":"Learning and Instruction"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"* K\u00fcpper-tetzel\n                  C. E.\n                \n                \n                  Erdfelder\n                  E.\n                \n                \n                  Dickh\u00e4user\n                  O.\n                \n              \n              The lag effect in secondary school classrooms: Enhancing students\u2019 memory for vocabulary\n              Instructional Science\n              2014\n              42\n              3\n              373\n              388\n              10.1007\/s11251-013-9285-2","DOI":"10.1007\/s11251-013-9285-2"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lakens, D. (2013). Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science: A practical primer for t-tests and ANOVAs. Frontiers in Psychology, 4.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2013.00863"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1080\/02701367.1988.10609373","article-title":"Distribution of practice in motor skill acquisition: Learning and performance effects reconsidered","volume":"59","author":"Lee","year":"1988","journal-title":"Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797613504302","article-title":"Improving students\u2019 long-term knowledge retention through personalized review","volume":"25","author":"Lindsey","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychological Science"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101945","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijer.2022.101945","article-title":"Exploring the efficacy of problem-based learning in diverse secondary school classrooms: Characteristics and goals of problem-based learning","volume":"112","author":"Lonergan","year":"2022","journal-title":"International Journal of Educational Research"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"* Lotfolahi\n                  A. R.\n                \n                \n                  Salehi\n                  H.\n                \n              \n              Spacing effects in vocabulary learning: Young EFL learners in focus\n              Cogent Education\n              2017\n              4\n              1\n              1287391\n              10.1080\/2331186X.2017.1287391","DOI":"10.1080\/2331186X.2017.1287391"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-019-09489-x","article-title":"How the amount and spacing of retrieval practice affect the short-and long-term retention of mathematics knowledge","volume":"32","author":"Lyle","year":"2019","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"* Lyle\n                  K. B.\n                \n                \n                  Bego\n                  C. R.\n                \n                \n                  Ralston\n                  P. A.\n                \n                \n                  Immekus\n                  J. C.\n                \n              \n              Spaced retrieval practice imposes desirable difficulty in calculus learning\n              Educational Psychology Review\n              2022\n              34\n              3\n              1799\n              1812\n              10.1007\/s10648-022-09677-2","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-022-09677-2"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"684","DOI":"10.1080\/20445911.2016.1181637","article-title":"Understanding the underlying mechanism of the spacing effect in verbal learning: A case for encoding variability and study-phase retrieval","volume":"28","author":"Maddox","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Cognitive Psychology"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"* McNellis\n                  C. J.\n                \n              \n              Re-conceptualizing instruction on the statement of cash flows: The impact of different teaching methods on intermediate accounting students\u2019 learning\n              Advances in Accounting Education\n              2015\n              17\n              115\n              144","DOI":"10.1108\/S1085-462220150000017017"},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Microsoft Corporation (2023). Microsoft excel, Microsoft Corporation. (Version 2032)."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"* Moss\n                  V. D.\n                \n              \n              The efficacy of massed versus distributed practice as a function of desired learning outcomes and grade level of the student\n              Dissertation Abstracts International Section B: The Sciences and Engineering\n              1996\n              56\n              9-B\n              5204\n              Available online: http:\/\/ovidsp.ovid.com\/ovidweb.cgi?T=JS&PAGE=reference&D=psyc3&NEWS=N&AN=1996-95005-375\n              (accessed on 16 May 2023)"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1792261","DOI":"10.1080\/2331186X.2020.1792261","article-title":"The effects of spaced versus massed distribution instruction on EFL learners\u2019 vocabulary recall and retention","volume":"7","author":"Namaziandost","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cogent Education"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1661131","DOI":"10.1080\/2331186X.2019.1661131","article-title":"The impacts of spaced and massed distribution instruction on EFL learners\u2019 vocabulary learning","volume":"6","author":"Namaziandost","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cogent Education"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1177\/00220574211031949","article-title":"An account of Iranian intermediate EFL learners\u2019 vocabulary retention and recall through spaced and massed distribution instructions","volume":"203","author":"Namaziandost","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of Education"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n71","article-title":"The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews","volume":"372","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"49","article-title":"Inquiry and 21st-century learning","volume":"25","author":"Pappas","year":"2009","journal-title":"School Library Monthly"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2007.11.010","article-title":"Contourenhanced meta-analysis funnel plots help distinguish publication bias from other causes of asymmetry","volume":"61","author":"Peters","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"* Petersen-Brown\n                  S.\n                \n                \n                  Lundberg\n                  A. R.\n                \n                \n                  Ray\n                  J. E.\n                \n                \n                  Dela Paz\n                  I. N.\n                \n                \n                  Riss\n                  C. L.\n                \n                \n                  Panahon\n                  C. J.\n                \n              \n              Applying spaced practice in the schools to teach math vocabulary\n              Psychology in the Schools\n              2019\n              56\n              6\n              977\n              991\n              10.1002\/pits.22248","DOI":"10.1002\/pits.22248"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"* Petersen-Brown\n                  S.\n                \n                \n                  Riese\n                  A. M.\n                \n                \n                  Schneider\n                  M. M.\n                \n                \n                  Ray\n                  J. E.\n                \n                \n                  Clonkey\n                  H. R.\n                \n              \n              Applying distributed practice in the schools to enhance retention of spelling words\n              Psychology in the Schools\n              2023\n              60\n              9\n              3486\n              3503\n              10.1002\/pits.22943","DOI":"10.1002\/pits.22943"},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Pomerance, L., Greenberg, J., and Walsh, K. (2016). Learning about learning: What every new teacher needs to know, National Centre on Teacher Quality. Available online: https:\/\/www.nctq.org\/publications\/Learning-About-Learning:-What-Every-New-Teacher-Needs-to-Know."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"R Core Team (2023). R: A language and environment for statistical computing, R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Available online: https:\/\/www.R-project.org\/."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"* Reynolds\n                  J. H.\n                \n                \n                  Glaser\n                  R.\n                \n              \n              Effects of repetition and spaced review upon retention of a complex learning task\n              Journal of Educational Psychology\n              1964\n              55\n              5\n              297\n              308\n              10.1037\/h0040734","DOI":"10.1037\/h0040734"},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"6701","article-title":"A compared difference in pupil performance as a function of teacher presented material (1-1), peer (cross-age) presented material, teacher presented material (1-5), and massed and spaced scheduling of instruction","volume":"39","author":"Robinson","year":"1979","journal-title":"Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.3102\/0013189X10374770","article-title":"Recent research on human learning challenges conventional instructional strategies","volume":"39","author":"Rohrer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Educational Researcher"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1177\/003172171209400203","article-title":"Learning 21st-century skills requires 21st-century teaching","volume":"94","author":"Saavedra","year":"2012","journal-title":"The Phi Delta Kappan"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"* Sayeski\n                  K. L.\n                \n                \n                  Earle\n                  G. A.\n                \n                \n                  Eslinger\n                  R.\n                \n                \n                  Whitenton\n                  J. N.\n                \n              \n              Teacher candidates\u2019 mastery of phoneme-grapheme correspondence: Massed versus distributed practice in teacher education\n              Bulletin of the Orton Society\n              2017\n              67\n              1\n              26\n              41\n              10.1007\/s11881-016-0126-2","DOI":"10.1007\/s11881-016-0126-2"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1108\/EL-02-2017-0039","article-title":"Are electronic theses and dissertations (still) grey literature in the digital age? A FAIR debate","volume":"36","author":"Schopfel","year":"2018","journal-title":"The Electronic Library"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1002\/acp.1747","article-title":"Spacing effects in real-world classroom vocabulary learning","volume":"25","author":"Sobel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Applied Cognitive Psychology"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"d4002","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.d4002","article-title":"Recommendations for examining and interpreting funnel plot asymmetry in meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials","volume":"343","author":"Sterne","year":"2011","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1017\/S0142716416000084","article-title":"Exploratory research on second language practice distribution: An Aptitude \u00d7 Treatment interaction","volume":"38","author":"Suzuki","year":"2017","journal-title":"Applied Psycholinguistics"},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"180","article-title":"Distributed practice in classroom inquiry science learning","volume":"4","author":"Svihla","year":"2017","journal-title":"Learning: Research and Practice"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Plass, J. L., Br\u00fcnken, R., and Moreno, R. (2010). Cognitive load theory: Recent theoretical advances. Cognitive load theory, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511844744"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"837","DOI":"10.1002\/acp.1598","article-title":"The effects of interleaved practice","volume":"24","author":"Taylor","year":"2010","journal-title":"Applied Cognitive Psychology"},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"The EndNote Team (2023). EndNote, Clarivate. (Version 20.6)."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1207\/S15326985EP3801_2","article-title":"Taking the load off a learner\u2019s mind: Instructional design for complex learning","volume":"38","author":"Kirschner","year":"2003","journal-title":"Educational Psychologist"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v036.i03","article-title":"Conducting meta-analyses in {R} with the {metafor} package","volume":"36","author":"Viechtbauer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Statistical Software"},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"* Weaver\n                  J. R.\n                \n              \n              The relative effects of massed versus distributed practice upon the learning and retention of eighth grade mathematics\n              Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences\n              1976\n              37\n              5-A\n              2698"},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"Wilson, D. B. (2023, June 16). Practical meta-analysis effect size calculator, Available online: https:\/\/campbellcollaboration.org\/research-resources\/effect-size-calculator.html."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dunlosky, J., and Rawson, K. A. (2019). Enhancing the quality of student learning using distributed practice. The Cambridge handbook of cognition and education, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/9781108235631"},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"* Yazdani\n                  M.\n                \n                \n                  Zebrowski\n                  E.\n                \n              \n              Spaced reinforcement: An effective approach to enhance the achievement in plane geometry\n              Journal of Mathematical Sciences and Mathematics Education\n              2006\n              1\n              37\n              43"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-4405(75)90009-6","article-title":"Dissertation research in school psychology: 1967\u201373","volume":"13","author":"Ysseldyke","year":"1975","journal-title":"Journal of School Psychology"}],"container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/15\/6\/771\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:46:30Z","timestamp":1760031990000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/15\/6\/771"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,3]]},"references-count":85,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]}},"alternative-id":["bs15060771"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bs15060771","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-328X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-328X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,3]]}}}