{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,2]],"date-time":"2026-05-02T07:21:27Z","timestamp":1777706487248,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,7]],"date-time":"2023-06-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1686096000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Buildings"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Three-dimensional concrete printing (3DCP) is emerging as an innovative technology and shows promise to revolutionize conventional construction modes. However, the current 3D-printed concrete (3DPC) generally requires higher cement content than conventional concrete to ensure its rheology for printing. From the perspective of cleaner production and reduce carbon emissions, this study explored the feasibility of replacing parts of cement with waste glass powder (WGP, 0%, 20%, 40%, and 60% by mass) and compared the properties of the developed 3DPC, including fluidity (flowable spread), rheology, heat of hydration, buildability, compressive strength, anisotropy, and drying shrinkage. The results showed that less than 40% WGP replacement had limited influence on the initial fluidity and static yield stress, as well as drying shrinkage, of 3DPC. Although the WGP inclusion decreased the compressive strength, it slowed down the fluidity loss and static yield stress increase, which could extend the workable time of the mixture for printing and improve buildability. The 40% WGP replacement was found increase to the buildability of the printing mixture from 150 mm to 155 mm. The printing mixture prepared with 60% WGP reduced the dying shrinkage by 50%. An exponential decay function between the fluidity and static yield stress was established so that the simple fluidity test could be used as an indicator of printability. The findings in this study provided a solution to reduce the consumption of cement in 3DPC, which could contribute to a greener production in the construction industry.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings13061476","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,7]],"date-time":"2023-06-07T02:28:45Z","timestamp":1686104925000},"page":"1476","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["Development and Characteristic of 3D-Printable Mortar with Waste Glass Powder"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Qi","family":"Deng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Structural Engineering, College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China"}]},{"given":"Shuai","family":"Zou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Structural Engineering, College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China"},{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China"}]},{"given":"Yonghui","family":"Xi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Structural Engineering, College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0084-808X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amardeep","family":"Singh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering & Architecture, Changzhou Institute of Technology, Changzhou 213032, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"670","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2010.10.030","article-title":"Trend of the research on construction and demolition waste management","volume":"31","author":"Yuan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2021.104115","article-title":"Large-scale 3D printing concrete technology: Current status and future opportunities","volume":"122","author":"Xiao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2018.05.006","article-title":"3D printing using concrete extrusion: A roadmap for research","volume":"112","author":"Buswell","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceramint.2018.03.031","article-title":"Experimental study on mix proportion and fresh properties of fly ash based geopolymer for 3D concrete printing","volume":"44","author":"Panda","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ceram. Int."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101779","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2020.101779","article-title":"3D recycled mortar printing: System development, process design, material properties and on-site printing","volume":"32","author":"Xiao","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103855","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2020.103855","article-title":"Extrusion-based concrete 3D printing from a material perspective: A state-of-the-art review","volume":"115","author":"Mohan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126545","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.126545","article-title":"Shotcrete based 3D concrete printing: State of art, challenges, and opportunities","volume":"323","author":"Heidarnezhad","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1016\/S0926-5805(96)00166-5","article-title":"Exploratory investigation of solid freeform construction","volume":"5","author":"Pegna","year":"1997","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2003.08.012","article-title":"Automated construction by contour crafting\u2014Related robotics and information technologies","volume":"13","author":"Khoshnevis","year":"2004","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121245","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.121245","article-title":"Comparative economic, environmental and productivity assessment of a concrete bathroom unit fabricated through 3D printing and a precast approach","volume":"261","author":"Weng","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123884","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.123884","article-title":"Environmental and economic assessment on 3D printed buildings with recycled concrete","volume":"278","author":"Han","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2018.06.001","article-title":"Vision of 3D printing with concrete\u2014Technical, economic and environmental potentials","volume":"112","author":"Lesage","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102986","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2019.102986","article-title":"Direct printing test for buildability of 3D-printable concrete considering economic viability","volume":"109","author":"Nerella","year":"2020","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"102189","article-title":"Cementitious composites blending with high belite sulfoaluminate and medium-heat Portland cements for largescale 3D printing","volume":"46","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2021.104155","article-title":"Mix design concepts for 3D printable concrete: A review","volume":"122","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124405","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.124405","article-title":"Plastic shrinkage and cracking of 3D printed mortar with recycled sand","volume":"302","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134310","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2022.134310","article-title":"A comparative study on environmental performance of 3D printing and conventional casting of concrete products with industrial wastes","volume":"298","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2021.104156","article-title":"Sustainable materials for 3D concrete printing","volume":"122","author":"Bhattacherjee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130749","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2022.130749","article-title":"Use of industrial waste materials for 3D printing of sustainable concrete: A review","volume":"340","author":"Dey","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2015.03.018","article-title":"Recent advances in understanding the role of supplementary cementitious materials in concrete","volume":"78","author":"Juenger","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105799","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2019.105799","article-title":"Reactivity of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) in cement blends","volume":"124","author":"Skibsted","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103632","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2020.103632","article-title":"Synergetic recycling of waste glass and recycled aggregates in cement mortars: Physical, durability and microstructure performance","volume":"113","author":"Lu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105664","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2021.105664","article-title":"A comprehensive review on performance of cementitious and geopolymeric concretes with recycled waste glass as powder, sand or cullet","volume":"172","author":"Dong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Resour. Conserv. Recycl."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsbe.2016.10.005","article-title":"Waste glass powder as partial replacement of cement for sustainable concrete practice","volume":"6","author":"Islam","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Sustain. Built Environ."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2012.04.027","article-title":"Durability of mortar using waste glass powder as cement replacement","volume":"36","author":"Matos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.02.006","article-title":"Performance of glass-powder concrete in field applications","volume":"109","author":"Omran","year":"2016","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2007.12.001","article-title":"Influence of a fine glass powder on cement hydration: Comparison to fly ash and modeling the degree of hydration","volume":"38","author":"Schwarz","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117635","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.117635","article-title":"Sustainable reuse of waste glass and incinerated sewage sludge ash in insulating building products: Functional and durability assessment","volume":"236","author":"Lu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"866","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.08.016","article-title":"Utilization of waste glass powder in the production of cement and concrete","volume":"124","author":"Aliabdo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130778","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2022.130778","article-title":"Influence of waste glass powder as a supplementary cementitious material (SCM) on physical and mechanical properties of cement paste under high temperatures","volume":"340","author":"Jiang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2022.03.619","article-title":"Applications, performance, challenges and current progress of 3D concrete printing technologies as the future of sustainable construction\u2014A state of the art review","volume":"65","author":"Rollakanti","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125312","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.125312","article-title":"On rheology of mortar with recycled fine aggregate for 3D printing","volume":"311","author":"Zou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2014). Standard Specification for Flow Table for Use in Tests of Hydraulic Cement (Standard No. ASTM C230\/C230M-14)."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2017.11.019","article-title":"Distinguishing dynamic and static yield stress of fresh cement mortars through thixotropy","volume":"86","author":"Qian","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103724","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2020.103724","article-title":"Hardened properties of layered 3D printed concrete with recycled sand","volume":"113","author":"Ding","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2013). Standard Test Method for Comprehensive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Standard No. ASTM C109\/C109M)."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2014). Standard Test Method for Length Change of Hardened Hydraulic-Cement Mortar and Concrete (Standard No. ASTM C157\/C157M-08)."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121699","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.121699","article-title":"Printability and advantages of 3D printing mortar with 100% recycled sand","volume":"273","author":"Zou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104494","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2022.104494","article-title":"Predicting the static yield stress of 3D printable concrete based on flowability of paste and thickness of excess paste layer","volume":"129","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131310","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.131310","article-title":"Hydration characteristics of cement with high volume circulating fluidized bed fly ash","volume":"380","author":"Zheng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130096","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2021.130096","article-title":"Promoting utilization rate of ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS): Incorporation of nanosilica to improve the properties of blended cement containing high volume GGBS","volume":"332","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2018.07.162","article-title":"The hydration and microstructure characteristics of cement pastes with high volume organic-contaminated waste glass powder","volume":"187","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106462","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2021.106462","article-title":"Development and characteristics of ultra high-performance lightweight cementitious composites (UHP-LCCs)","volume":"145","author":"Lu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"e01494","article-title":"The behavior of UHPC containing recycled glass waste in place of cementitious materials: A comprehensive review","volume":"17","author":"Salahaddin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117075","DOI":"10.1016\/j.powtec.2021.117075","article-title":"A novel development of green UHPC containing waste concrete powder derived from construction and demolition waste","volume":"398","author":"He","year":"2022","journal-title":"Powder Technol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133545","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2022.133545","article-title":"Recycling waste glass aggregate in concrete: Mitigation of alkali-silica reaction (ASR) by carbonation curing","volume":"370","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2021.104143","article-title":"Reaction mechanisms of alkali-activated glass powder-ggbs-CAC composites","volume":"122","author":"He","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.120180","article-title":"A review of ground waste glass as a supplementary cementitious material: A focus on alkali-silica reaction","volume":"257","author":"Bueno","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.131163","article-title":"The drying shrinkage response of recycled-waste-glass-powder-and calcium-carbonate-based ultrahigh-performance concrete","volume":"379","author":"Abbas","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"e01587","article-title":"Effect of glass powder on the mechanical and drying shrinkage of glass-fiber-reinforced cementitious composites","volume":"17","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2018.04.005","article-title":"Rheological requirements for printable concretes","volume":"112","author":"Roussel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2018.02.022","article-title":"Experimental and modeling study on the non-linear structural build-up of fresh cement pastes incorporating viscosity modifying admixtures","volume":"108","author":"Ma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118054","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.118054","article-title":"Rheology and buildability of sustainable cement-based composites containing micro-crystalline cellulose for 3D-printing","volume":"239","author":"Long","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102904","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2019.102904","article-title":"3D concrete printing: A lower bound analytical model for buildability performance quantification","volume":"106","author":"Kruger","year":"2019","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."}],"container-title":["Buildings"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-5309\/13\/6\/1476\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:49:42Z","timestamp":1760125782000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-5309\/13\/6\/1476"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,7]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6]]}},"alternative-id":["buildings13061476"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/buildings13061476","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-5309"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-5309","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,7]]}}}