{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,9]],"date-time":"2026-01-09T18:32:30Z","timestamp":1767983550543,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,5]],"date-time":"2023-12-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1701734400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia (FCT)","award":["UIDB\/04625\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04625\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Buildings"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Encapsulated rejuvenators embedded in asphalt mixtures are a promising technology to extend the service life of asphalt pavements. However, their effects on the asphalt mixture\u2019s performance still need to be properly understood. A recently developed three-dimensional discrete element method framework enables the evaluation of non-homogeneous distributions of the rejuvenator, closely resembling real conditions. This includes different scenarios involving capsule content and release efficiency. The presented numerical results show that the rejuvenator-to-mastic ratio and the number of rejuvenator-modified contacts influence the stiffness properties of asphalt mixtures. In cases where a homogeneous rejuvenator distribution is assumed, the three-dimensional DEM model predicts a significant reduction in the asphalt mixture\u2019s stiffness that compromises the pavement\u2019s performance. Simulations show that the diffusion effect needs to be considered for predicting the post-healed behavior of asphalt mixtures. For cases considering more suitable modified mastic amounts (less than 1.20 wt%), the effect on the asphalt mixture\u2019s stiffness modulus is less pronounced, and the phase angle is not significantly affected. Additionally, the presented simulations suggest that the capsule content can be increased up to 0.75 wt%, and capsules with a release rate higher than 48% can be used without compromising the rheological performance of asphalt mixtures, possibly improving their self-healing properties. These numerical insights should be considered in future designs to achieve optimal post-healed behavior.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings13123023","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,5]],"date-time":"2023-12-05T02:55:32Z","timestamp":1701744932000},"page":"3023","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Impact of Rejuvenator-Modified Mastic on Asphalt Mixture Stiffness: Meso-Scale Discrete Element Method Approach"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0671-6088","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gustavo","family":"C\u00e2mara","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, School of Science and Technology, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8838-3760","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nuno Monteiro","family":"Azevedo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Concrete Dams Department, National Laboratory for Civil Engineering, 1700-111 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9910-1458","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rui","family":"Micaelo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CERIS, Department of Civil Engineering, School of Science and Technology, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1091","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2017.08.137","article-title":"Microcapsules for Self-Healing of Asphalt Mixture without Compromising Mechanical Performance","volume":"155","author":"Micaelo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2018.09.102","article-title":"Effect of Bitumen Properties in the Induction Healing Capacity of Asphalt Mixes","volume":"190","author":"Ajam","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5378738","DOI":"10.1155\/2023\/5378738","article-title":"Sugarcane Bagasse Fibers for Enhancing Moisture Susceptibility Properties in Stone Mastic Asphalt","volume":"2023","author":"Thejaswi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1617\/s11527-018-1172-5","article-title":"Effect of Capsule Addition and Healing Temperature on the Self-Healing Potential of Asphalt Mixtures","volume":"51","author":"Garcia","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04019052","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002687","article-title":"Mechanical and Self-Healing Properties of Stone Mastic Asphalt Containing Encapsulated Rejuvenators","volume":"31","author":"Yalcin","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Mater. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, Y., Lv, S., Wang, Z., Ma, H., Lei, W., Pu, C., Meng, H., Xie, N., and Peng, X. (2023). Research on the Modulus Decay Model under a Three-Dimensional Stress State of Asphalt Mixture during Fatigue Damage. Buildings, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings13102570"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2010.08.078","article-title":"Preparation of Capsules Containing Rejuvenators for Their Use in Asphalt Concrete","volume":"184","author":"Schlangen","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1617\/s11527-019-1376-3","article-title":"Influence of Encapsulated Sunflower Oil on the Mechanical and Self-Healing Properties of Dense-Graded Asphalt Mixtures","volume":"52","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"880","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000677","article-title":"Induction Healing of Porous Asphalt Concrete Beams on an Elastic Foundation","volume":"25","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Mater. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118510","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.118510","article-title":"Effect of Metallic-Waste Aggregates on Microwave Self-Healing Performances of Asphalt Mixtures","volume":"246","author":"Lou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D4016003","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001769","article-title":"Effectiveness of Vegetable Oils as Rejuvenators for Aged Asphalt Binders","volume":"29","author":"Ji","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Mater. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, S., Liu, X., Tabakovi\u0107, A., and Schlangen, E. (2021). Experimental Investigation of the Performance of a Hybrid Self-Healing System in Porous Asphalt under Fatigue Loadings. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14123415"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tabakovi\u0107, A., Faloon, C., and O\u2019Prey, D. (2022). The Effect of Conductive Alginate Capsules Encapsulating Rejuvenator (HealRoad Capsules) on the Healing Properties of 10 Mm Stone Mastic Asphalt Mix. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12073648"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, S., Liu, X., Tabakovi\u0107, A., and Schlangen, E. (2019). Investigation of the Potential Use of Calcium Alginate Capsules for Self-Healing in Porous Asphalt Concrete. Materials, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma12010168"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suo, Z., Nie, L., Xiang, F., and Bao, X. (2021). The Effect of Waste Plant Oil on the Composition and Micro-Morphological Properties of Old Asphalt Composition. Buildings, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings11090407"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compgeo.2019.103255","article-title":"Complex Modulus Modeling of Asphalt Concrete Mixes Using the Non-Smooth Contact Dynamics Method","volume":"117","author":"Quezada","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Geotech."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.07.095","article-title":"Study of the Mechanical Properties and Self-Healing Ability of Asphalt Mixture Containing Calcium-Alginate Capsules","volume":"123","author":"Micaelo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2016.01.072","article-title":"Mechanical Properties of Asphalt Mixture Containing Sunflower Oil Capsules","volume":"118","author":"Garcia","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1617\/s11527-020-1453-7","article-title":"Asphalt Self-Healing with Encapsulated Rejuvenators: Effect of Calcium-Alginate Capsules on Stiffness, Fatigue and Rutting Properties","volume":"53","author":"Micaelo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125901","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.125901","article-title":"Effect of Palm Oil Capsules on the Self-Healing Properties of Aged and Unaged Asphalt Mixtures Gained by Resting Period and Microwave Heating","volume":"316","author":"Kargari","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1669","DOI":"10.1080\/14680629.2022.2092026","article-title":"Effect of Rejuvenating Oil Type on the Synthesis and Properties of Alginate-Based Polynuclear Capsules for Asphalt Self-Healing","volume":"24","author":"Concha","year":"2022","journal-title":"Road Mater. Pavement Des."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109564","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2021.109564","article-title":"The Role of Rejuvenators in Embedded Damage Healing for Asphalt Pavement","volume":"202","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, F., Zhang, L., Yan, B., Kong, D., Li, Y., and Wu, S. (2019). Diffusion Mechanism of Rejuvenator and Its Effects on the Physical and Rheological Performance of Aged Asphalt Binder. Materials, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma12244130"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, J., Luo, C., Jie, J., and Cui, H. (2023). Rheological Properties and Microscopic Morphology Evaluation of UHMWPE-Modified Corn Stover Oil Bio-Asphalt. Buildings, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings13092167"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Norambuena-Contreras, J., Concha, J., Arteaga-P\u00e9rez, L., and Gonzalez-Torre, I. (2022). Synthesis and Characterisation of Alginate-Based Capsules Containing Waste Cooking Oil for Asphalt Self-Healing. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12052739"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1680\/geot.1979.29.1.47","article-title":"A Discrete Numerical Model for Granular Assemblies","volume":"29","author":"Cundall","year":"1979","journal-title":"Geotechnique"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04020042","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)EM.1943-7889.0001745","article-title":"Aggregate Representation Approach in 3D Discrete-Element Modeling Supporting Adaptive Shape and Mass Property Fitting of Realistic Aggregates","volume":"146","author":"Jin","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Eng. Mech."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130406","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.130406","article-title":"Study on the Cracking Behavior of Asphalt Mixture by Discrete Element Modeling with Real Aggregate Morphology","volume":"368","author":"Gao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.128182","article-title":"Low-Temperature Fracture Characteristics of Asphalt Mixtures Using the Eccentric Single-Edge Notched Bend Test: A 3D Discrete Element Study","volume":"344","author":"Dan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)1532-3641(2007)7:2(131)","article-title":"Micromechanical Modeling of the Viscoelastic Behavior of Asphalt Mixtures Using the Discrete-Element Method","volume":"7","author":"Abbas","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Geomech."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.124305","article-title":"Micromechanical Simulation of Porous Asphalt Mixture Compaction Using Discrete Element Method (DEM)","volume":"301","author":"Anupam","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, P., Wang, C., Lu, W., Moharekpour, M., Oeser, M., and Wang, D. (2022). Development of an FEM-DEM Model to Investigate Preliminary Compaction of Asphalt Pavements. Buildings, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings12070932"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peng, Y., Chen, Y., Xu, Y., Xia, S., Lu, X., and Li, Y. (2022). Discrete Element Modelling of Mechanical Response of Crumb Rubber-Modified Asphalt Pavements under Traffic Loads. Int. J. Pavement Eng., 1\u201318.","DOI":"10.1080\/10298436.2022.2068546"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1617\/s11527-021-01876-7","article-title":"Microstructural Behavior of the Low-Temperature Cracking and Self-Healing of Asphalt Mixtures Based on the Discrete Element Method","volume":"55","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1569","DOI":"10.1007\/s40571-023-00574-1","article-title":"3D DEM Model Simulation of Asphalt Mastics with Sunflower Oil","volume":"10","author":"Micaelo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Comp. Part. Mech."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2179625","DOI":"10.1080\/10298436.2023.2179625","article-title":"Generalised Kelvin Contact Models for DEM Modelling of Asphalt Mixtures","volume":"24","author":"Azevedo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Pavement Eng."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129685","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.129685","article-title":"Investigation of the Self-Healing and Rejuvenating Properties of Aged Asphalt Mixture Containing Multi-Cavity Ca-Alginate Capsules","volume":"361","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2018.01.046","article-title":"Calcium Alginate Capsules Encapsulating Rejuvenator as Healing System for Asphalt Mastic","volume":"169","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2017.11.125","article-title":"Self-Healing of Asphalt Mastic by the Action of Polymeric Capsules Containing Rejuvenators","volume":"161","author":"Micaelo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04020401","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0003517","article-title":"Investigation of the Release and Self-Healing Properties of Calcium Alginate Capsules in Asphalt Concrete under Cyclic Compression Loading","volume":"33","author":"Bao","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Mater. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2015.09.017","article-title":"Design, Preparation and Properties of Microcapsules Containing Rejuvenator for Asphalt","volume":"99","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.12.165","article-title":"Study on Self-Healing Microcapsule Containing Rejuvenator for Asphalt","volume":"135","author":"Xue","year":"2017","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122728","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.122728","article-title":"Properties of Ca-Alginate Capsules to Maximise Asphalt Self-Healing Properties","volume":"284","author":"Garcia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2019.03.224","article-title":"Synthesis and Characterization of Multi-Cavity Ca-Alginate Capsules Used for Self-Healing in Asphalt Mixtures","volume":"211","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2015.03.088","article-title":"Investigation the Self-Healing Mechanism of Aged Bitumen Using Microcapsules Containing Rejuvenator","volume":"85","author":"Su","year":"2015","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2019.01.001","article-title":"Experimental Observation of the Vascular Self-Healing Hollow Fibers Containing Rejuvenator States in Bitumen","volume":"201","author":"Su","year":"2019","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2018.04.153","article-title":"Effect of Mixing and Ageing on the Mechanical and Self-Healing Properties of Asphalt Mixtures Containing Polymeric Capsules","volume":"175","author":"Yalcin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"347","article-title":"The Compartmented Alginate Fibres Optimisation for Bitumen Rejuvenator Encapsulation","volume":"4","author":"Braak","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Traffic Transp. Eng."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2010.09.033","article-title":"Properties of Capsules Containing Rejuvenators for Their Use in Asphalt Concrete","volume":"90","author":"Schlangen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Fuel"}],"container-title":["Buildings"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-5309\/13\/12\/3023\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:38:07Z","timestamp":1760132287000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-5309\/13\/12\/3023"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,5]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]}},"alternative-id":["buildings13123023"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/buildings13123023","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-5309"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-5309","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,5]]}}}