{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T13:41:39Z","timestamp":1773841299751,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":62,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,28]],"date-time":"2024-03-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1711584000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Buildings"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Three-dimensional concrete printing (3DCP) is of great interest to scientists and the construction industry to bring automation to structural engineering applications. However, studies on the thermal performance of three-dimensional printed concrete (3DPC) building envelopes are limited, despite their potential to provide a long-term solution to modern construction challenges. This work is a numerical study to examine the impact of infill geometry on 3DPC lattice envelope thermal performance. Three different lattice structures were modeled to have the same thickness and nearly equal contour lengths, voids, and insulation percentages. Additionally, the effects of filament width and the application of granular insulating materials (expanded polystyrene beads and loose-fill perlite) were also studied. Finally, the efficacy of insulation was established. Results show that void area affects the thermal performance of 3DPC envelopes under stagnant air conditions, while web length, filament width, and contact (intersection) area between the webs and face shells affect the thermal behavior when cavities are filled with insulating materials due to thermal bridging. The thermal efficiency of insulation, which shows the effective use of insulation, varies between 26 and 44%, due to thermal bridges.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings14040926","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,28]],"date-time":"2024-03-28T13:20:53Z","timestamp":1711632053000},"page":"926","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Numerical Evaluation on Thermal Performance of 3D Printed Concrete Walls: The Effects of Lattice Type, Filament Width and Granular Filling Material"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Kunda","family":"Chamatete","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Dokuz Eyl\u00fcl University, 35390 \u0130zmir, T\u00fcrkiye"},{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Dokuz Eyl\u00fcl University, 35390 \u0130zmir, T\u00fcrkiye"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4688-6164","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u00c7a\u011flar","family":"Yal\u00e7\u0131nkaya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Dokuz Eyl\u00fcl University, 35390 \u0130zmir, T\u00fcrkiye"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"702","article-title":"Energy efficiency measures in buildings for achieving sustainable development goals","volume":"134","year":"2018","journal-title":"Energy Procedia"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"702","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egypro.2017.09.562","article-title":"3D Printing of Buildings: Construction of the Sustainable Houses of the Future by BIM","volume":"134","author":"Sakin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Energy Procedia"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2023, December 21). Apis Cor. Construction with Robotic Precision. Technologies. Available online: https:\/\/apis-cor.com\/technologies\/."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133887","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.133887","article-title":"A critical review on reducing the environmental impact of 3D printing concrete: Material preparation, construction process and structure level","volume":"409","author":"Zhao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"994","DOI":"10.1007\/s10163-019-00857-x","article-title":"Utilization of recycled glass for 3D concrete printing: Rheological and mechanical properties","volume":"21","author":"Heng","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"02025","DOI":"10.1051\/matecconf\/201819302025","article-title":"Legal regulation of environmental protection, management of natural resources, and environmental safety in construction sector","volume":"193","author":"Voskresenskaya","year":"2018","journal-title":"MATEC Web Conf."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1089\/3dp.2021.0024","article-title":"3D Printed Formwork for Concrete: State-of-the-Art, Opportunities, Challenges, and Applications","volume":"9","author":"Jipa","year":"2022","journal-title":"3D Print. Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bushor.2011.11.003","article-title":"3-D printing: The new industrial revolution","volume":"55","author":"Berman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bus. Horiz."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2020.101286","article-title":"Energy efficient 3D printed buildings: Material and techniques selection worldwide study","volume":"30","author":"Alkhalidi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102933","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2019.102933","article-title":"Large-scale digital concrete construction-CONPrint3D concept for on-site, monolithic 3D-printing","volume":"107","author":"Mechtcherine","year":"2019","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"(2023, December 22). Apis Cor. Progress on 3D Prinitng. Available online: https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/posts\/apis-cor_3dprinted-wall-concrete-activity-7142975182201110528-_FrU?utm_source=share&utm_medium=member_android."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hens, H. (2016). Applied Building Physics, John Wiley & Sons.. Available online: https:\/\/books.google.com\/books\/about\/Applied_Building_Physics.html?id=fdo7CwAAQBAJ.","DOI":"10.1002\/9783433607114"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2130203","DOI":"10.1080\/23311916.2022.2130203","article-title":"Thermal modeling of the convective heat transfer in the large air cavities of the 3D concrete printed walls","volume":"9","author":"Mansouri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cogent. Eng."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nemova, D., Kotov, E., Andreeva, D., Khorobrov, S., Olshevskiy, V., Vasileva, I., Zaborova, D., and Musorina, T. (2022). Experimental Study on the Thermal Performance of 3D-Printed Enclosing Structures. Energies, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/en15124230"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suntharalingam, T., Upasiri, I., Gatheeshgar, P., Poologanathan, K., Nagaratnam, B., Santos, P., and Rajanayagam, H. (2021). Energy Performance of 3D-Printed Concrete Walls: A Numerical Study. Buildings, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings11100432"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1552","DOI":"10.1016\/j.progpolymsci.2012.04.003","article-title":"Biocomposites reinforced with natural fibers: 2000\u20132010","volume":"37","author":"Faruk","year":"2012","journal-title":"Prog. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1883","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymdegradstab.2007.06.017","article-title":"Characterization of weathered woodeplastic composite surfaces using FTIR spectroscopy, contact angle, and XPS","volume":"92","author":"Stark","year":"2007","journal-title":"Polym. Degrad. Stab."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1177\/0021955X11404833","article-title":"Expanded polylactic acid\u2014An eco-friendly alternative to polystyrene foam","volume":"47","author":"Parker","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Cell. Plast."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AlZahrani, A.A., Alghamdi, A.A., and Basalah, A.A. (2022). Computational Optimization of 3D-Printed Concrete Walls for Improved Building Thermal Performance. Buildings, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings12122267"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Ochs, F., and M\u00fcller-Steinhagen, H. (2024, January 24). Temperature and Moisture Dependence of the Thermal Conductivity of Insulation Materials. Available online: www.itw.uni-stuttgart.de."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2014.07.030","article-title":"Impact of perlite, vermiculite and cement on the thermal conductivity of a plaster composite material: Experimental and numerical approaches","volume":"68","author":"Abidi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Compos. Part B Eng."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"(2023, December 20). QOROX, \u201cLeading Printed Structures Welcoming Freeform Design Opportunities\u201d. Available online: https:\/\/qorox.co.nz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/QOROX-Brochure-V7.pdf."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1177\/1744259117698522","article-title":"Numerical analysis of thermal transmittance of hollow concrete blocks","volume":"41","author":"Santos","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Build. Phys."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"e02355","article-title":"Experimental characterisation of hygrothermal properties of a 3D printed cementitious mortar","volume":"19","author":"Pessoa","year":"2023","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"988","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2016.05.045","article-title":"Insulation materials for the building sector: A review and comparative analysis","volume":"62","author":"Schiavoni","year":"2016","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al Tamimi, A., Hassan, H., Rodriguez-Ubinas, E., Alhaidary, H., and Mansouri, A. (2023). Thermal performance of 3D concrete printed walls: Calculated and in-situ measured U-values. J. Asian Archit. Build. Eng.","DOI":"10.1080\/13467581.2023.2278467"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"8786","article-title":"Optimization of the air gap thickness for the insulation of double-walled walls of a building","volume":"9","author":"Ouedraogo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Asian J. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2017). Building Components and Building Elements\u2014Thermal Resistance and Thermal Transmittance\u2014Calculation Methods (Standard No. ISO 6946: 2017). Available online: https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/65708.html."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1177\/014362449001100103","article-title":"Thermal conductivity of porous materials: II Theoretical treatment of radiative heat transfer","volume":"11","author":"Simpson","year":"1990","journal-title":"Build. Serv. Eng. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1177\/0021955X09350803","article-title":"Dependence of Thermal Properties of Expandable Polystyrene Particle Foam on Cell Size and Density","volume":"46","author":"Ju","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Cell. Plast."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1177\/0262489320934263","article-title":"Thermal conductivity and conditioning of grey expanded polystyrene foams","volume":"39","author":"Simpson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell. Polym."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1177\/17442591211009549","article-title":"Thermal resistance of masonry walls: A literature review on influence factors, evaluation, and improvement","volume":"45","author":"Ismaiel","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Build. Phys."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"97","article-title":"Par\u00e2metros para garantia da qualidade do projeto de seguran\u00e7a contra inc\u00eandio em edif\u00edcios altos","volume":"7","author":"Ono","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ambiente Constru\u00eddo"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Rig\u00e3o, A.O. (2024, January 24). Comportamento de Pequenas Paredes de Alvenaria Estrutural Frente a Altas Temperaturas. August 2012. Available online: http:\/\/repositorio.ufsm.br\/handle\/1\/7809."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1007\/s00161-020-00909-w","article-title":"Generalized ballistic-conductive heat transport laws in three-dimensional isotropic materials","volume":"33","author":"Restuccia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Contin. Mech. Thermodyn."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110965","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2021.110965","article-title":"Experimental study on the thermal performance of a 3D printed concrete prototype building","volume":"241","author":"Sun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applthermaleng.2023.121845","article-title":"Numerical modeling and experimental verification for anisotropic heat conduction process in velocity probe of the thermal mass flowmeter","volume":"236","author":"Lu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl. Therm. Eng."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122039","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.122039","article-title":"Uniaxial load testing of large-scale 3D-printed concrete wall and finite-element model analysis","volume":"275","author":"Daungwilailuk","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Joh, C., Lee, J., Bui, T.Q., Park, J., and Yang, I.H. (2020). Buildability and Mechanical Properties of 3D Printed Concrete. Materials, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma13214919"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bello, N.D., and Memari, A.M. (2023). Comparative Review of the Technology and Case Studies of 3D Concrete Printing of Buildings by Several Companies. Buildings, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings13010106"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"WASP (2023, December 23). 3D Printer House | Crane WASP. Available online: https:\/\/www.3dwasp.com\/en\/3d-printer-house-crane-wasp\/."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.122463","article-title":"Environmental assessment of large-scale 3D printing in construction: A comparative study between cob and concrete","volume":"270","author":"Alhumayani","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(2023, December 24). Black Buffalo 3D. NEXCON Brochure. Available online: https:\/\/bb3d.io\/nexcon-brochure\/."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Schumacher, C.J., Straube, J.F., Ober, D.G., and Grin, A.P. (2013, January 1\u20135). Development of a new hot box apparatus to measure building enclosure thermal performance. Proceedings of the Thermal Performance of the Exterior Envelopes of Whole Buildings XII International Conference\u2014ASHRAE, Clearwater, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Insulation Company of America (2023, December 20). What is Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) Foam? The Possibilities Are Endless!. Available online: https:\/\/insulationcorp.com\/eps\/."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"120674","article-title":"Thermal insulation properties of expanded polystyrene as construction AND insulating materials","volume":"263","author":"Yucel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120674","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.120674","article-title":"Investigating the use of raw perlite to produce monolithic thermal insulation material","volume":"263","author":"Davraz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Perlite Institute (2023, December 24). Perlite and the Environment. Available online: https:\/\/www.perlite.org\/environmental\/."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Jan Kosny, P., Yarbrough, P.D., Childs, P., and Mohiuddin, P.S.A. (2007, January 2\u20135). How the Same Wall Can Have Several Different R-Values: Relations Between Amount of Framing and Overall Thermal Performance in Wood and Steel-Framed Walls. Proceedings of the ASHRAE THERM X, Thermal Performance of the Exterior Envelopes of Buildings X, Clearwater, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Urban, B., Engelmann, P., Kossecka, E., and Kosny, J. (June, January 29). Arranging Insulation for Better Thermal Resistance in Concrete and Masonry Wall Systems. Proceedings of the 9th Nordic Symposium on Building Physics, Tampere, Finland. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/266602609."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Canadian Concrete Masonry Producers Association (CCMP) (2013). Metric Technical Manual\u2014Thermal Properties & Design Details (Section 6), CCMP. Available online: https:\/\/ccmpa.ca\/download\/metric-technical-manual\/."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.24200\/squjs.vol1iss1pp69-80","article-title":"Modern Concrete Wall-Units with Improved Thermal Resistance for Housing in Hot Climate","volume":"1","author":"Pierzchlewicz","year":"1996","journal-title":"Sultan Qaboos Univ. J. Sci. [SQUJS]"},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"National Concrete Masonry Association (NCMA) (2023, December 18). Thermal Catalog of Concrete Masonry Assemblies. Available online: https:\/\/ncma.org\/resource\/thermal-catalog-of-concrete-masonry-assemblies\/."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2021.104155","article-title":"Mix design concepts for 3D printable concrete: A review","volume":"122","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121745","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.121745","article-title":"A review of 3D printed concrete: Performance requirements, testing measurements and mix design","volume":"273","author":"Hou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-49916-7_47","article-title":"High-Performance Light-Weight Concrete for 3D Printing","volume":"28","author":"Mohammad","year":"2020","journal-title":"RILEM Bookseries"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pietras, D., Zbyszy\u0144ski, W., and Sadowski, T. (2023). A 3D Printing Method of Cement-Based FGM Composites Containing Granulated Cork, Polypropylene Fibres, and a Polyethylene Net Interlayer. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16124235"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ji, G., Ding, T., Xiao, J., Du, S., Li, J., and Duan, Z. (2019). A 3D Printed Ready-Mixed Concrete Power Distribution Substation: Materials and Construction Technology. Materials, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma12091540"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132598","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2022.132598","article-title":"Thermal conductivity of 3D printed concrete with recycled fine aggregate composite phase change materials","volume":"364","author":"Hao","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2018.03.017","article-title":"A self-reinforced cementitious composite for building-scale 3D printing","volume":"90","author":"Soltan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2018.04.195","article-title":"Mechanical properties of layered geopolymer structures applicable in concrete 3D-printing","volume":"176","author":"Nazari","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2017.12.051","article-title":"Printable properties of cementitious material containing copper tailings for extrusion based 3D printing","volume":"162","author":"Ma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Build. Mater."}],"container-title":["Buildings"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-5309\/14\/4\/926\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:19:55Z","timestamp":1760105995000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-5309\/14\/4\/926"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,28]]},"references-count":62,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4]]}},"alternative-id":["buildings14040926"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/buildings14040926","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-5309"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-5309","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,28]]}}}