{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,2]],"date-time":"2026-03-02T22:55:52Z","timestamp":1772492152004,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,2]],"date-time":"2024-09-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1725235200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"CONSTRUCT\u2014Instituto de I&amp;D em Estruturas e Constru\u00e7\u00f5es","award":["UIDB\/04708\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04708\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia (FCT)","award":["UIDB\/04708\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04708\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Buildings"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The pursuit of sustainable and energy-efficient construction is vital to mitigate climate change and reduce carbon emissions. The application of the concept of nearly Zero Energy Building (nZEB) is now a reality for new buildings in the European Union, helping to achieve those goals. However, there is significant complexity in achieving acceptable thermal comfort levels in warmer climates such as the one in Southern Europe. This study carried out a multi-objective optimisation of the nZEB envelope using current construction solutions and nZEB regulations currently in force in different climate zones in this region, aiming to reduce thermal discomfort according to EN 16798-1. The results indicate that passive measures induced by regulatory requirements can significantly reduce discomfort at an affordable cost. However, great caution must be taken in relation to regulatory requirements, mainly for the cooling season, aiming to avoid summer overheating of dwellings and guaranteeing that nZEB\u2019s buildings are sustainable and comfortable in the Mediterranean climate regions. In addition, designers should be aware that increasing the insulation layer beyond regulatory requirements does not necessarily imply an increase in passive thermal comfort. Often, this implies, in addition to an increase in construction costs, an increase in discomfort, particularly during the cooling season.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings14092757","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,2]],"date-time":"2024-09-02T12:54:42Z","timestamp":1725281682000},"page":"2757","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Optimisation of Nearly Zero Energy Building Envelope for Passive Thermal Comfort in Southern Europe"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4385-0980","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jaime","family":"Resende","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CONSTRUCT (LFC), Faculty of Engineering (FEUP), University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0398-3423","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Helena","family":"Corvacho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CONSTRUCT (LFC), Faculty of Engineering (FEUP), University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"The European Parliament, and The Council of the European Union (2024). Directive (EU) 2024\/1275 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 April 2024 on the Energy Performance of Buildings (Recast), European Union."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"The European Parliament, and The Council of the European Union (2010). Directive 2010\/31\/EU, European Union."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"The European Parliament, and The Council of the European Union (2018). Directive 2018\/844\/EU Energy Performance of Buildings, European Union."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"IEA (2014). IEA SHC Task 40\/EBC Annex 52 towards Net Zero Energy Solar Buildings: A Review of 30 Net ZEBs Case Studies, International Energy Agency."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2010.12.022","article-title":"Zero Energy Building\u2014A Review of Definitions and Calculation Methodologies","volume":"43","author":"Marszal","year":"2011","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100582","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clet.2022.100582","article-title":"Concept of Net Zero Energy Buildings (NZEB)\u2014A Literature Review","volume":"11","author":"Jaysawal","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clean. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"736","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2017.10.004","article-title":"Techno-Economical Analysis Based on a Parametric Computational Evaluation for Decision Process on Envelope Technologies and Configurations","volume":"158","author":"Tagliabue","year":"2018","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chastas, P., Theodosiou, T., Kontoleon, K., and Bikas, D. (2017). The Effect of Embodied Impact on the Cost-Optimal Levels of Nearly Zero Energy Buildings: A Case Study of a Residential Building in Thessaloniki, Greece. Energies, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/en10060740"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alam, S., Airaksinen, M., and Lahdelma, R. (2021). Attitudes and Approaches of Finnish Retrofit Industry Stakeholders toward Achieving Nearly Zero-Energy Buildings. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su13137359"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fabrizio, E. (2020). Zero Energy Buildings: A Reached Target or a Starting Point?. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10020512"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110851","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2021.110851","article-title":"Modeling, Simulation and Control Tools for NZEB: A State-of-the-Art Review","volume":"142","year":"2021","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2013.10.062","article-title":"Thermal Comfort and Building Energy Consumption Implications\u2014A Review","volume":"115","author":"Yang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2010.09.024","article-title":"Thermostat Strategies Impact on Energy Consumption in Residential Buildings","volume":"43","author":"Moon","year":"2011","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3008","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egyr.2020.10.069","article-title":"Energy Saving Actions toward NZEBs with Multiple-Criteria Optimization in Current Residential Buildings","volume":"6","author":"Tang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energy Rep."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2018.03.053","article-title":"Review of Adaptive Thermal Comfort Models in Built Environmental Regulatory Documents","volume":"137","author":"Carlucci","year":"2018","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"(2019). Energy Performance of Buildings-Ventilation for Buildings-Part 1: Indoor Environmental Input Parameters for Design and Assessment of Energy Performance of Buildings Addressing Indoor Air Quality, Thermal Environment, Lighting and Acoustics-Module M1-6 (Standard No. EN 16798-1)."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2017.05.163","article-title":"Comfort Settings and Energy Demand for Residential NZEB in Warm Climates","volume":"202","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"186","article-title":"Cultural Impacts on Occupant Behaviour and Energy Efficiency","volume":"2","author":"Davidson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Energy Prod. Manag."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100807","DOI":"10.1016\/j.uclim.2021.100807","article-title":"Feasibility of Adaptive Thermal Comfort for Energy Savings in Cooling and Heating: A Study on Europe and the Mediterranean Basin","volume":"36","year":"2021","journal-title":"Urban Clim."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109084","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2022.109084","article-title":"Understanding Thermal Comfort in Vernacular Dwellings in Alentejo, Portugal: A Mixed-Methods Adaptive Comfort Approach","volume":"217","author":"Raslan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2021.102292","article-title":"Are NZEB Design Solutions Environmental Sustainable? Sensitive Analysis for Building Envelope Configurations and Photovoltaic Integration in Different Climates","volume":"39","author":"Gigante","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119306","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.119306","article-title":"Energy Saving Potential in Current and Future World Built Environments Based on the Adaptive Comfort Approach","volume":"249","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2018.10.043","article-title":"Implications of Climate Changes to Building Energy and Design","volume":"44","author":"Zhai","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109899","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2022.109899","article-title":"Building Parameters That Influence Overheating of Apartment Buildings in a Temperate Climate in Southern Europe","volume":"228","year":"2023","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lou, H.-L., and Hsieh, S.-H. (2024). Towards Zero: A Review on Strategies in Achieving Net-Zero-Energy and Net-Zero-Carbon Buildings. Sustainability, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/su16114735"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Capeluto, I.G. (2022). The Unsustainable Direction of Green Building Codes: A Critical Look at the Future of Green Architecture. Buildings, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings12060773"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Ambiente e A\u00e7\u00e3o Clim\u00e1tica (2021). Despacho n.o 6476-H\/2021, Di\u00e1rio da Rep\u00fablica."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2024, January 31). DB City. Available online: www.db-city.com."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5844","DOI":"10.1002\/2017GL072874","article-title":"A High-Accuracy Map of Global Terrain Elevations","volume":"44","author":"Yamazaki","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2013). Despacho no 15793-F Zonamento Clim\u00e1tico, Di\u00e1rio da Rep\u00fablica. 2.a S\u00e9rie."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"ADENE (2024, January 31). Estat\u00edstica do Sistema de Certifica\u00e7\u00e3o Energ\u00e9tica dos Edif\u00edcios. Available online: https:\/\/www.sce.pt\/estatisticas\/."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2021). Ambiente e A\u00e7\u00e3o Clim\u00e1tica e Infraestruturas e Habita\u00e7\u00e3o, Di\u00e1rio da Rep\u00fablica. Portaria n.o 138-I\/2021 de 1 de Julho."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2021). Ambiente e A\u00e7\u00e3o Clim\u00e1tica Despacho n.o 6476-E\/2021, Di\u00e1rio da Rep\u00fablica."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"(2020). Presid\u00eancia do Conselho de Ministros, Di\u00e1rio da Rep\u00fablica. Decreto-Lei n.o 101-D\/2020 de 7 de Dezembro."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"CYPE Ingenieros, S.A. (2024, March 07). Gerador de Pre\u00e7os Para Constru\u00e7\u00e3o Civil\u2014Portugal. Available online: http:\/\/www.geradordeprecos.info\/."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"P3E (2024, January 31). Itecons Ferramentas de C\u00e1lculo DL 101-D\/2020. Available online: https:\/\/www.itecons.uc.pt\/p3e\/index.php."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Attia, S. (2018). Evolution of Definitions and Approaches. Net Zero Energy Buildings (NZEB), Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-812461-1.00021-6"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"18","article-title":"Getting to Net Zero","volume":"51","author":"Crawley","year":"2009","journal-title":"ASHRAE J."}],"container-title":["Buildings"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-5309\/14\/9\/2757\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:47:34Z","timestamp":1760111254000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-5309\/14\/9\/2757"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,2]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9]]}},"alternative-id":["buildings14092757"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/buildings14092757","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-5309"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-5309","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,2]]}}}