{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,2]],"date-time":"2026-02-02T21:00:06Z","timestamp":1770066006942,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":80,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,16]],"date-time":"2025-10-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1760572800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Buildings"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this study, the effects of waste steel fiber and high volume blast furnace slag (BFS) substitution on rheological properties, thixotropic behavior and carbon emission were investigated in order to increase the sustainability of three-dimensional (3D) printable concrete (3DPC). Cement was replaced with BFS at 0%, 25%, 50% and 75% by volume, while waste steel fibers were added to the mixtures at three different lengths (5, 10, 15 mm) and volumetric ratios (0.5% and 1.0%). A total of 39 mixtures were optimized with respect to extrudability, buildability and shape stability criteria, and their rheological and thixotropic properties were characterized by a modified rheometer procedure. Results showed that 50% BFS substitution reduced dynamic yield stress and viscosity by 69% and 52%, respectively, and eliminated the need for a water-reducing admixture. 75% BFS substitution improved structural build-up (Athix) but required 6% silica fume. The fiber effect interacted with length and BFS content, with short fibers increasing rheological resistance, while the effect of long fibers decreased in mixtures with high BFS. The carbon emission assessment revealed that 75% BFS substitution provided an outstanding CO2 reduction of up to 71% compared to the control mix. These findings prove that high-volume BFS and waste fibers are an effective strategy to optimize rheological performance and environmental impact for sustainable 3D concrete printing.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings15203731","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,16]],"date-time":"2025-10-16T16:33:22Z","timestamp":1760632402000},"page":"3731","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Investigation of Waste Steel Fiber Usage Rate and Length Change on Some Fresh State Properties of 3D Printable Concrete Mixtures"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Fatih Eren","family":"Akg\u00fcm\u00fc\u015f","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Bursa Uludag University, Bursa 16059, T\u00fcrkiye"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8915-879X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hatice Gizem","family":"\u015eahin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Bursa Uludag University, Bursa 16059, T\u00fcrkiye"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0326-5015","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ali","family":"Mardani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Bursa Uludag University, Bursa 16059, T\u00fcrkiye"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Tittelboom, K., Mohan, M.K., \u0160avija, B., Keita, E., Ma, G., Du, H., Kruger, J., Caneda-Martinez, L., Wang, L., and Bekaert, M. (2024). On the micro-and meso-structure and durability of 3D printed concrete elements. Cem. Concr. Res., 185.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2024.107649"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tu, H., Wei, Z., Bahrami, A., Kahla, N.B., Ahmad, A., and \u00d6zk\u0131l\u0131\u00e7, Y.O. (2023). Recent advancements and future trends in 3D concrete printing using waste materials. Dev. Built Environ., 16.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dibe.2023.100187"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmed, G.H. (2023). A review of \u201c3D concrete printing\u201d: Materials and process characterization, economic considerations and environmental sustainability. J. Build. Eng., 66.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2023.105863"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"12","article-title":"Sustainability and 3D concrete printing: Identifying a need for a more holistic approach to assessing environmental impacts","volume":"2","author":"Heywood","year":"2023","journal-title":"Archit. Intell."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, N., Puttappa, S., Ashwath, R., and Ali, H. (2023). Sustainable non-conventional concrete 3D printing\u2014A review. Sustainability, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/su151310121"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rehman, A.U., and Kim, J.-H. (2021). 3D concrete printing: A systematic review of rheology, mix designs, mechanical, microstructural, and durability characteristics. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14143800"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Si, W., Khan, M., and McNally, C. (2025). A Comprehensive Review of Rheological Dynamics and Process Parameters in 3D Concrete Printing. J. Compos. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcs9060299"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhi, P., Wu, Y.C., Yang, Q., Kong, X., and Xiao, J. (2022). Effect of spiral blade geometry on 3D-printed concrete rheological properties and extrudability using discrete element modeling. Autom. Constr., 137.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2022.104199"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chang, Z., Chen, Y., Schlangen, E., and \u0160avija, B. (2023). A review of methods on buildability quantification of extrusion-based 3D concrete printing: From analytical modelling to numerical simulation. Dev. Built Environ., 16.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dibe.2023.100241"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mishra, S.K., Perera, B.J.C., and Kumar, N. (2025). A review on 3D concrete printing processes, materials, and lifecycle considerations. Constr. Build. Mater., 356.","DOI":"10.1007\/s41024-025-00626-4"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, H., Jin, L., Chen, Y., Chen, Q., Liu, X., and Yu, Q. (2024). Rheological behavior of 3D printed concrete: Influential factors and printability prediction scheme. J. Build. Eng., 91.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2024.109626"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Panda, B., Noor Mohamed, N.A., Paul, S.C., Bhagath Singh, G.V.P., Tan, M.J., and \u0160avija, B. (2019). The effect of material fresh properties and process parameters on buildability and interlayer adhesion of 3D printed concrete. Materials, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma12132149"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rahman, M., Rawat, S., Yang, R.C., Mahil, A., and Zhang, Y.X. (2024). A comprehensive review on fresh and rheological properties of 3D printable cementitious composites. J. Build. Eng., 91.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2024.109719"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Girskas, G., and Kligys, M. (2025). 3D Concrete Printing Review: Equipment, Materials, Mix Design, and Properties. Buildings, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings15122049"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, Y., Sheng, R., Yao, X., Pichler, B., Mang, H.A., and Zhang, J.L. (2025). A three-step development strategy for 3D printable concrete containing coarse aggregates. Case Stud. Constr. Mater., 22.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cscm.2025.e04540"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Murali, G., and Wong, L.S. (2024). Waste-driven construction: A state-of-the-art review on the integration of waste in 3D printed concrete in recent researches for sustainable development. J. Build. Eng., 98.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2024.111268"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaya, Y., Kobya, V., Mardani, A., Mardani, N., and Beytekin, H.E. (2024). Effect of grinding conditions on clinker grinding efficiency: Ball size, mill rotation speed, and feed rate. Buildings, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings14082356"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8213","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-43660-x","article-title":"Projecting future carbon emissions from cement production in developing countries","volume":"14","author":"Cheng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bayqra, S.H., Mardani-Aghabaglou, A., and Ramyar, K. (2022). Physical and mechanical properties of high volume fly ash roller compacted concrete pavement (A laboratory and case study). Constr. Build. Mater., 314.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.125664"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"1647","article-title":"Recycling of sewage sludge incineration ashes as construction material","volume":"35","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Fac. Eng. Archit. Gazi Univ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5481","DOI":"10.1002\/suco.202200473","article-title":"Mechanical properties, durability performance and interlayer adhesion of 3DPC mixtures: A state-of-the-art review","volume":"24","author":"Mardani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Struct. Concr."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sbspro.2015.06.294","article-title":"Properties of hardened concrete produced by waste marble powder","volume":"195","author":"Ulubeyli","year":"2015","journal-title":"Procedia-Soc. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2014.04.002","article-title":"Mechanical and cementitious characteristics of ground granulated blast furnace slag and basic oxygen furnace slag blended mortar","volume":"60","author":"Tsai","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1407","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2017.06.087","article-title":"Performance of sustainable concretes containing very high volume Class-F fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag","volume":"162","author":"Gholampour","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1080","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2011.02.010","article-title":"Costs and carbon emissions for geopolymer pastes in comparison to ordinary portland cement","volume":"19","author":"McLellan","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, Z., Zhang, D., Li, H., Sun, X., Zhao, K., and Wang, Y. (2022). Effect of FA and GGBFS on compressive strength, rheology, and printing properties of cement-based 3D printing material. Constr. Build. Mater., 339.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.127685"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, Q., Zhu, B., Li, X., Meng, L., Cai, J., Zhang, Y., and Pan, J. (2023). Investigation of the rheological and mechanical properties of 3D printed eco-friendly concrete with steel slag. J. Build. Eng., 72.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2023.106621"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bayat, H., and Kashani, A. (2023). Analysis of rheological properties and printability of a 3D-printing mortar containing silica fume, hydrated lime, and blast furnace slag. Mater. Today Commun., 37.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtcomm.2023.107128"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Panda, B., and Tan, M.J. (2018, January 26\u201328). Material properties of 3D printable high-volume slag cement. Proceedings of the First International Conference on 3D Construction Printing (3DcP) in Conjunction with the 6th International Conference on Innovative Production and Construction (IPC 2018), Melbourne, Australia."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arularasi, V., Thamilselvi, P., Avudaiappan, S., Saavedra Flores, E.I., Amran, M., Fediuk, R., Vatin, N., and Karelina, M. (2021). Rheological behavior and strength characteristics of cement paste and mortar with fly ash and GGBS admixtures. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su13179600"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/0079-6700(94)00030-6","article-title":"Synthetic fibre-reinforced concrete","volume":"20","author":"Zheng","year":"1995","journal-title":"Prog. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0899-1561(2007)19:5(385)","article-title":"Mechanical properties of steel fibre-reinforced concrete","volume":"19","author":"Thomas","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Mater. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"704","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2012.06.042","article-title":"Flexural performance of fibre reinforced concrete made with steel and synthetic fibres","volume":"36","author":"Soutsos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arunothayan, A.R., Nematollahi, B., Khayat, K., Ramesh, A., and Sanjayan, J.G. (2023). Rheological Characterization of Ultra-High Performance Concrete for 3D Printing. Cem. Concr. Compos., 136.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2022.104854"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2019.05.173","article-title":"The effect of fibres in the rheology of self-compacting concrete","volume":"219","author":"Alberti","year":"2019","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"534","article-title":"Investigation of fresh and hardened properties of 3D printable concrete containing ozone-modified carbon fiber","volume":"14","author":"Mardani","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Sustain. Cem.-Based Mater."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"1597","article-title":"Mechanical and rheological properties of fiber-reinforced 3D printable concrete; in terms of fiber content and aspect ratio","volume":"26","author":"Mardani","year":"2024","journal-title":"Struct. Concr."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u015eahin, H.G., Mardani, A., and Beytekin, H.E. (2024). Effect of silica fume utilization on structural build-up, mechanical and dimensional stability performance of fiber-reinforced 3D printable concrete. Polymers, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym16040556"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u015eahin, H.G., Mardani, A., and Mardani, N. (2024). Performance requirements and optimum mix proportion of high-volume fly ash 3D printable concrete. Buildings, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings14072069"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Mardani-Aghabaglou, A. (2016). Investigation of Cement-Superplasticizer Admixture Compatibility. [Ph.D. Thesis, Ege University]."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yao, H., Xie, Z., Li, Z., Huang, C., Yuan, Q., and Zheng, X. (2022). The relationship between the rheological behavior and interlayer bonding properties of 3D printing cementitious materials with the addition of attapulgite. Constr. Build. Mater., 316.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.125809"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Jiang, Z., Zhu, Y., Zhang, J., Ren, Q., and Huang, T. (2021). Effects of redispersible polymer powders on the structural build-up of 3D printing cement paste with and without hydroxypropyl methylcellulose. Constr. Build. Mater., 267.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.120551"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2017.11.019","article-title":"Distinguishing dynamic and static yield stress of fresh cement mortars through thixotropy","volume":"86","author":"Qian","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thilakarathna, P.S.M., Seo, S., Baduge, K.K., Lee, H., Mendis, P., and Foliente, G. (2020). Embodied carbon analysis and benchmarking emissions of high and ultra-high strength concrete using machine learning algorithms. J. Clean. Prod., 262.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.121281"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, W., Zhang, D., Ftwi, E., Ellis, B.R., and Li, V.C. (2023). Development of sustainable low carbon Engineered Cementitious Composites with waste polyethylene fiber, sisal fiber and carbonation curing. Resour. Conserv. Recycl., 197.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2023.107096"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1007\/s41062-023-01090-0","article-title":"Waste to valuable resource: Application of copper slag and steel slag in concrete with reduced carbon dioxide emissions","volume":"8","author":"Mohanty","year":"2023","journal-title":"Innov. Infrastruct. Solut."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Hammond, G., and Jones, C. (2008). Inventory of Carbon Energy: ICE, Sustainable Energy Research Team, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"1260","article-title":"Efficiency of structural materials in sustainable design","volume":"8","author":"Girgin","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Civ. Eng. Archit."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2012.08.001","article-title":"Assessment of CO2 reduction of alkali-activated concrete","volume":"39","author":"Yang","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.05.035","article-title":"A comprehensive approach to mitigation of embodied carbon in reinforced concrete buildings","volume":"229","author":"Gan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Asare, G.O., Barnett, S., Awinda, K., and Martinson, B. (2024). Life cycle assessment of steel fibre-reinforced concrete beams. Cogent Eng., 11.","DOI":"10.1080\/23311916.2024.2374942"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1065\/lca2007.05.327","article-title":"Green house gas emissions due to concrete manufacture","volume":"12","author":"Flower","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Life Cycle Assess."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jia, Z., Zhou, M., Chen, Y., Wang, W., Ma, L., Chen, Y., Liu, C., and Zhang, Y. (2024). Effect of steel fiber shape and content on printability, microstructure and mechanical properties of 3D printable high strength cementitious materials. Case Stud. Constr. Mater., 20.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cscm.2024.e03080"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pham, L., Tran, P., and Sanjayan, J. (2020). Steel fibres reinforced 3D printed concrete: Influence of fibre sizes on mechanical performance. Constr. Build. Mater., 250.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.118785"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, A., Liu, Q., Xiao, J., and Lyu, Q. (2022). Mechanical and macrostructural properties of 3D printed concrete dosed with steel fibers under different loading direction. Constr. Build. Mater., 323.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.126616"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2015.12.153","article-title":"Utilization and efficiency of ground granulated blast furnace slag on concrete properties\u2013A review","volume":"105","author":"Erdemir","year":"2016","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2004.11.002","article-title":"Rheological properties of cementitious materials containing mineral admixtures","volume":"35","author":"Park","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, T., Li, Z., Zhao, S., Zhao, X., and Qu, X. (2021). Study on the particle morphology, powder characteristics and hydration activity of blast furnace slag prepared by different grinding methods. Constr. Build. Mater., 270.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.121445"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2639","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2010.12.013","article-title":"Influence of supplementary cementitious materials on engineering properties of high strength concrete","volume":"25","author":"Johari","year":"2011","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"ACI (2000). Slag Cement in Concrete and Mortar, ACI. 233 R03."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Belie, N., Soutsos, M., and Gruyaert, E. (2018). Properties of Fresh and Hardened Concrete Containing Supplementary Cementitious Materials, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-70606-1"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12007","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/1200\/1\/012007","article-title":"New technology in 3D concrete printing by using ground granulated blast-furnace slag: A review","volume":"1200","author":"Salleh","year":"2021","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Do\u011fruyol, M., Ayhan, E., and Kara\u015fin, A. (2024). Effect of waste steel fiber use on concrete behavior at high temperature. Case Stud. Constr. Mater., 20.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cscm.2024.e03051"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2022.10.195","article-title":"Fresh and hardened state properties of waste tire fiber and steel fiber reinforced concrete","volume":"80","author":"Mohammad","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1284","DOI":"10.1590\/1516-1439.022915","article-title":"Workability analysis of steel fiber reinforced concrete using slump and Ve-Be test","volume":"18","author":"Figueiredo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2011.07.004","article-title":"Flow characteristics and acceptance criteria of fiber-reinforced self-compacted concrete (FR-SCC)","volume":"27","author":"Taha","year":"2012","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/KEM.711.224","article-title":"Concrete reinforced with recycled steel fibers from end of life tires: Mix-design and application","volume":"711","author":"Centonze","year":"2016","journal-title":"Key Eng. Mater."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, W., Shen, A., Lyu, Z., He, Z., and Nguyen, K.T. (2021). Fresh and rheological characteristics of fiber reinforced concrete\u2014A review. Constr. Build. Mater., 296.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.123734"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, L., Zhang, Q., Lombois-Burger, H., Jia, Z., Zhang, Z., Niu, G., and Zhang, Y. (2022). Pore structure, internal relative humidity, and fiber orientation of 3D printed concrete with polypropylene fiber and their relation with shrinkage. J. Build. Eng., 61.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2022.105250"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1097","DOI":"10.1080\/19648189.2019.1697758","article-title":"Rheological and mechanical optimization of a steel fiber reinforced self-compacting concrete using the design of experiments method","volume":"26","author":"Gueciouer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Environ. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2013.05.006","article-title":"Compressive strength development of binary and ternary lime\u2013pozzolan mortars","volume":"52","author":"Grist","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2017.07.016","article-title":"Effect of constituents on rheological properties of fresh concrete\u2014A review","volume":"83","author":"Jiao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Srinivas, D., Dey, D., Panda, B., and Sitharam, T.G. (2022). Printability, Thermal and Compressive Strength Properties of Cementitious Materials: A Comparative Study with Silica Fume and Limestone. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15238607"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32009","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/365\/3\/032009","article-title":"Study of mineral additives for cement materials for 3D-printing in construction","volume":"365","author":"Inozemtcev","year":"2018","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y., Zhang, Y., Xie, Y., Zhang, Z., and Banthia, N. (2022). Unraveling pore structure alternations in 3D-printed geopolymer concrete and corresponding impacts on macro-properties. Addit. Manuf., 59.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addma.2022.103137"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Geng, Z., She, W., Zuo, W., Lyu, K., Pan, H., Zhang, Y., and Miao, C. (2020). Layer-interface properties in 3D printed concrete: Dual hierarchical structure and micromechanical characterization. Cem. Concr. Res., 138.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2020.106220"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaya, Y., Kobya, V., Kaya, Y., Mardani, A., and Ramyar, K. (2025). Synthesis, characterization, and efficiency evaluation of next-generation grinding aids modified with organic acids. Constr. Build. Mater., 493.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2025.143278"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Munro, D., Di Benedetto, G., Graham, M., Jans-Singh, M., Turpin, M., and Kanavaris, F. (2025). The assessment of the embodied carbon of resource-constrained materials including ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) and ferrous scrap. Structures, 78.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.istruc.2025.109175"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y.S., Cho, H.K., and Wang, X.Y. (2022). Mixture optimization of sustainable concrete with silica fume considering CO2 emissions and cost. Buildings, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings12101580"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1007\/s41024-023-00270-w","article-title":"Recycled steel fiber for fiber reinforced concrete production: Fresh and hardened properties, cost, and ecological assessments","volume":"8","author":"Roshan","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Build. Pathol. Rehabil."}],"container-title":["Buildings"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-5309\/15\/20\/3731\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,18]],"date-time":"2025-10-18T04:20:43Z","timestamp":1760761243000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-5309\/15\/20\/3731"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,16]]},"references-count":80,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]}},"alternative-id":["buildings15203731"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/buildings15203731","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-5309"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-5309","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,16]]}}}