{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,3]],"date-time":"2026-04-03T06:17:17Z","timestamp":1775197037304,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":81,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,17]],"date-time":"2025-12-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765929600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Buildings"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study investigated the effects of waste steel fiber and high-volume blast furnace slag (BFS) substitution on the mechanical and physical properties of three-dimensional printable concrete (3DPC) to improve its environmental performance. BFS was substituted for cement at 0%, 25%, 50%, and 75% by volume. Waste steel fibers were added to the mixtures at three lengths (5, 10, and 15 mm) and two volumetric ratios (0.5% and 1.0%). Twenty-eight mixtures were optimized based on extrudability, buildability, and shape stability criteria. Parameters such as compressive and flexural strength, surface moisture content, and drying shrinkage were evaluated. The results showed that using up to 0.5% waste steel fibers increased compressive strength by up to 23%, but decreased it to a level of 1%. Fiber reinforcement improved the flexural strength of all blends by up to 53% at both ages, regardless of fiber ratio or length. Increasing the BFS substitution rate generally increased surface moisture however, this value decreased in mixtures containing 75% BFS and silica fume. Furthermore, using steel fibers and in-creasing fiber length significantly improved the drying shrinkage performance of the mixtures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings15244564","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,18]],"date-time":"2025-12-18T09:15:21Z","timestamp":1766049321000},"page":"4564","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Combined Effect of Recycled Tire Steel Fiber and Blast Furnace Slag on the Mechanical Performance of 3D Printable Concrete"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Fatih Eren","family":"Akg\u00fcm\u00fc\u015f","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Bursa Uludag University, Bursa 16059, T\u00fcrkiye"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8915-879X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hatice Gizem","family":"\u015eahin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Bursa Uludag University, Bursa 16059, T\u00fcrkiye"}]},{"given":"Tu\u011f\u00e7e","family":"\u0130saf\u00e7a Kaya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Bursa Uludag University, Bursa 16059, T\u00fcrkiye"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0326-5015","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ali","family":"Mardani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Bursa Uludag University, Bursa 16059, T\u00fcrkiye"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2023.107137","article-title":"Twin-pipe pumping strategy for stiffening control of 3D printable concrete: From transportation to fabrication","volume":"168","author":"Tao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104958","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2023.104958","article-title":"Rheology of 3D printable concrete prepared by secondary mixing of ready-mix concrete","volume":"138","author":"Xiao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matlet.2022.133273","article-title":"An experimental study of thermal performance of 3D printed concrete slabs","volume":"330","author":"Dey","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2021.104156","article-title":"Sustainable materials for 3D concrete printing","volume":"122","author":"Bhattacherjee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5481","DOI":"10.1002\/suco.202200473","article-title":"Mechanical properties, durability performance and interlayer adhesion of 3DPC mixtures: A state-of-the-art review","volume":"24","author":"Mardani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Struct. Concr."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103570","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2020.103570","article-title":"Evaluating the printability of concretes containing lightweight coarse aggregates","volume":"109","author":"Rahul","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2021.104144","article-title":"Technologies for improving buildability in 3D concrete printing","volume":"122","author":"Muthukrishnan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Akg\u00fcm\u00fc\u015f, F.E., \u015eahin, H.G., and Mardani, A. (2025). Investigation of Waste Steel Fiber Usage Rate and Length Change on Some Fresh State Properties of 3D Printable Concrete Mixtures. Buildings, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings15203731"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2018.02.012","article-title":"Additive manufacturing (3D printing): A review of materials, methods, applications and challenges","volume":"143","author":"Ngo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Compos. Part B Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2018.05.006","article-title":"3D printing using concrete extrusion: A roadmap for research","volume":"112","author":"Buswell","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125865","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.125865","article-title":"Assessment of materials, design parameters and some properties of 3D printing concrete mixtures; a state-of-the-art review","volume":"316","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2013.10.011","article-title":"Influence of cement fineness and water-to-cement ratio on mortar early-age heat of hydration and set times","volume":"50","author":"Hu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u015eahin, H.G., Mardani, A., and Beytekin, H.E. (2024). Effect of silica fume utilization on structural build-up, mechanical and dimensional stability performance of fiber-reinforced 3D printable concrete. Polymers, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym16040556"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1007\/s11431-016-9077-7","article-title":"State-of-the-art of 3D printing technology of cementitious material\u2014An emerging technique for construction","volume":"61","author":"Ma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. China Technol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12873","DOI":"10.1007\/s13369-022-06641-8","article-title":"Effect of colemanite ore wastes utilization on fresh properties and compressive strength of cementitious systems","volume":"47","author":"Durgun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arab. J. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"192","article-title":"Effect of partial replacement of sand by iron ore tailing (IOT) and cement by ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) on the compressive strength of concrete","volume":"3","author":"Ananthayya","year":"2014","journal-title":"Esrsa Publ."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109741","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2024.109741","article-title":"Effects of fineness and substitution rate of GGBFS on material characteristics of GGBFS-blended cement mortars: Hydration, non-evaporable water, pore structure, mechanical properties, self-desiccation, and autogenous shrinkage","volume":"92","author":"Oh","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1007\/s41062-023-01225-3","article-title":"Long-term strength and durability performance of eco-friendly concrete with supplementary cementitious materials","volume":"8","author":"Miah","year":"2023","journal-title":"Innov. Infrastruct. Solut."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Onn, C.C., Mo, K.H., Radwan, M.K., Liew, W.H., Ng, C.G., and Yusoff, S. (2019). Strength, carbon footprint and cost considerations of mortar blends with high volume ground granulated blast furnace slag. Sustainability, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/su11247194"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2008.04.006","article-title":"Monitoring the setting of concrete containing blast-furnace slag by measuring the ultrasonic p-wave velocity","volume":"38","author":"Robeyst","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2012.02.005","article-title":"Use of nano-silica to increase early strength and reduce setting time of concretes with high volumes of slag","volume":"34","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106935","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2022.106935","article-title":"Impact of CSH seeding on hydration and strength of slag blended cement","volume":"161","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1357","DOI":"10.1007\/s42247-024-00942-4","article-title":"Waste materials utilization in 3D printable concrete for sustainable construction applications: A review","volume":"8","author":"Irshidat","year":"2025","journal-title":"Emergent Mater."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127685","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.127685","article-title":"Effect of FA and GGBFS on compressive strength, rheology, and printing properties of cement-based 3D printing material","volume":"339","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mosley, W.H., Bungey, J.H., and Hulse, R. (1999). Reinforced Concrete Design, Macmillan.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-349-14911-7"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.52825\/ocp.v1i.72","article-title":"Interlayer reinforcement in shotcrete-3D-printing: The effect of accelerator dosage on the resulting bond behavior of integrated reinforcement bars","volume":"1","author":"Freund","year":"2022","journal-title":"Open Conf. Proc."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"3","article-title":"Advances in Structural Applications of Digital Fabrication with Concrete","volume":"2023","author":"Gebhard","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vis. Strateg. Reinf. Addit. Manuf. Constr."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gebhard, L., Bischof, P., Anton, A., Mata-Falc\u00f3n, J., Dillenburger, B., and Kaufmann, W. (2022, January 27\u201329). Pre-installed reinforcement for 3D concrete printing. Proceedings of the RILEM International Conference on Concrete and Digital Fabrication, Loughborough, UK.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-06116-5_64"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bos, F.P., Ahmed, Z.Y., Jutinov, E.R., and Salet, T.A. (2017). Experimental exploration of metal cable as reinforcement in 3D printed concrete. Materials, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma10111314"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102992","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2019.102992","article-title":"Mesh reinforcing method for 3D Concrete Printing","volume":"109","author":"Marchment","year":"2020","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110869","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2024.110869","article-title":"Polyacrylonitrile fiber reinforced 3D printed concrete: Effects of fiber length and content","volume":"97","author":"Ma","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105816","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2024.105816","article-title":"Triaxial compressive behavior of 3D printed PE fiber-reinforced ultra-high performance concrete","volume":"155","author":"Zeng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139737","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.139737","article-title":"Mechanism analysis of the magnetic field assisted 3D printed steel fiber reinforced concrete","volume":"458","author":"Huang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bj\u00f6rkner, B., Frick-Engfeldt, M., Pont\u00e9n, A., and Zimerson, E. (2011). Plastic materials. Contact Dermatitis, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-03827-3_37"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105047","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2023.105047","article-title":"Using Fibre recovered from face mask waste to improve printability in 3D concrete printing","volume":"139","author":"Rajeev","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2004.01.002","article-title":"Waste tire fiber modified concrete","volume":"35","author":"Li","year":"2004","journal-title":"Compos. Part B Eng."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"1019","article-title":"At\u0131k Lastik ve Cam Lif ile Modifiye Edilmi\u015f Bit\u00fcm\u00fcn Asfalt Betonu Performans\u0131na Etkileri","volume":"18","author":"Yildirim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Afyon Kocatepe \u00dcniversitesi Fen Ve M\u00fchendislik Bilim. Derg."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kadela, M., Ma\u0142ek, M., Jackowski, M., Kunikowski, M., Klimek, A., Dudek, D., and Ro\u015bkowicz, M. (2023). Recycling of tire-derived fiber: The contribution of steel cord on the properties of lightweight concrete based on perlite aggregate. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16052124"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Michalik, A., Chyli\u0144ski, F., Bobrowicz, J., and Pich\u00f3r, W. (2022). Effectiveness of concrete reinforcement with recycled tyre steel fibres. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15072444"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04023264","DOI":"10.1061\/JMCEE7.MTENG-15417","article-title":"The effect of tire-recycled steel fibers on the mechanical, environmental, and economic performance of ultra-high performance and ordinary concretes under steam curing conditions","volume":"35","author":"Gholami","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Mater. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zeybek, \u00d6., \u00d6zk\u0131l\u0131\u00e7, Y.O., \u00c7elik, A.\u0130., Deifalla, A.F., Ahmad, M., and Sabri Sabri, M.M. (2022). Performance evaluation of fiber-reinforced concrete produced with steel fibers extracted from waste tire. Front. Mater., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmats.2022.1057128"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2022). Tests for Mechanical and Physical Properties of Aggregates\u2014Part 6: Determination of Particle Density and Water Absorption (Standard No. EN 1097-6:2022)."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"e04506","article-title":"Degradation of mechanical properties of 3D fiber reinforced printed concrete mixtures exposed to elevated temperatures","volume":"22","author":"Kaya","year":"2025","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"(2016). Cement Testing Methods\u2014Part 1: Determination of Strength (Standard No. TS EN 196-1:2016)."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2018.03.232","article-title":"Effect of surface moisture on inter-layer strength of 3D printed concrete","volume":"172","author":"Sanjayan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04021015","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0003603","article-title":"Effect of side chain length change of polycarboxylate-ether\u2013based high-range water\u2013reducing admixture on properties of cementitious systems containing fly ash","volume":"33","author":"Altun","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Mater. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaya, Y., Kobya, V., Mardani, A., Mardani, N., and Beytekin, H.E. (2024). Effect of grinding conditions on clinker grinding efficiency: Ball size, mill rotation speed, and feed rate. Buildings, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings14082356"},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Karaduman, O. (2010). The Survey of the Effects of Blast Furnace Slag on the Performance of Concrete and the Permeability of Chlorine. [Master\u2019s Dissertation, Civil Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Sakarya University]."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, H.M., Kwon, S.J., Myung, N.V., Singh, J.K., Lee, H.S., and Mandal, S. (2020). Evaluation of strength development in concrete with ground granulated blast furnace slag using apparent activation energy. Materials, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma13020442"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.123150","article-title":"Properties of high-volume slag cement mortar incorporating circulating fluidized bed combustion fly ash and bottom ash","volume":"289","author":"Siddique","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132891","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.132891","article-title":"On the chemo-mechanical evolution process of high-volume slag cement paste","volume":"400","author":"Liang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nematollahi, B., Vijay, P., Sanjayan, J., Nazari, A., Xia, M., Naidu Nerella, V., and Mechtcherine, V. (2018). Effect of polypropylene fibre addition on properties of geopolymers made by 3D printing for digital construction. Materials, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma11122352"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"776","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2012.09.067","article-title":"Improvement of the mechanical properties of jute fibre reinforced cement mortar: A statistical approach","volume":"38","author":"Chakraborty","year":"2013","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2154351","DOI":"10.1080\/10298436.2022.2154351","article-title":"Effect of fibre type and utilisation rate on dimensional stability and frost resistance of pavement mortar mixture","volume":"24","author":"Kaya","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Pavement Eng."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.129108","article-title":"3D printing effect on the compressive strength of concrete structures","volume":"354","author":"Aramburu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2012.04.088","article-title":"Steel fibers from waste tires as reinforcement in concrete: A mechanical characterization","volume":"36","author":"Centonze","year":"2012","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103993","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2021.103993","article-title":"Experimental study on large-scale 3D printed concrete walls under axial compression","volume":"133","author":"Han","year":"2022","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1680\/macr.14.00232","article-title":"Investigation into the mechanical properties of structural lightweight concrete reinforced with waste steel wires","volume":"67","author":"Aghaee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mag. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.3992\/jgb.11.4.109.1","article-title":"Performance of steel micro fiber reinforced mortar mixtures containing plain, binary and ternary cementitious systems","volume":"11","author":"Hosseinnezhad","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Green Build."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2018.06.182","article-title":"Mechanical and fracture properties of concrete reinforced with recycled and industrial steel fibers using Digital Image Correlation technique and X-ray micro computed tomography","volume":"183","author":"Suchorzewski","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2004.02.011","article-title":"Compressive behavior of fiber reinforced high-performance concrete subjected to elevated temperatures","volume":"34","author":"Poon","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2018.09.039","article-title":"Empirical models to predict rheological properties of fiber reinforced cementitious composites for 3D printing","volume":"189","author":"Weng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Awal, A.A.A.A.A., Yee, L.L., and Hossain, M.Z. (2013). Fresh and hardened properties of concrete containing steel fibre from recycled tire. Malays. J. Civ. Eng., 25."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Joseph, S., and Cizer, \u00d6. (2022). Hydration of hybrid cements at low temperatures: A study on portland cement-blast furnace slag\u2014Na2SO4. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15051914"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jozi\u0107, D., Ljubi\u010di\u0107, B., Petrovi\u0107, A., \u010covi\u0107, A., and Juradin, S. (2023). The influence of GGBFS as an additive replacement on the kinetics of cement hydration and the mechanical properties of cement mortars. Buildings, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings13081960"},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"G\u00fczelk\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck, S. (2014). Microstructural Investigation of the Effect of Sulphate on Cement Mortars with Composite Puzolans. [Master\u2019s Dissertation, Civil Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, K\u0131r\u0131kkale University]."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105024","DOI":"10.1016\/j.istruc.2023.105024","article-title":"Determination of optimum blast furnace slag ash and hemp fiber ratio in cement mortars","volume":"57","author":"Filazi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Structures"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119551","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2024.119551","article-title":"3D-printed functionally graded concrete plates: Concept and bending behavior","volume":"327","author":"Sun","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106308","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2025.106308","article-title":"Mechanical and microstructural characterization of interlayer bonding in multi-material 3D-Printed concrete","volume":"165","author":"Sun","year":"2026","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2019.01.008","article-title":"Mechanical anisotropy of aligned fiber reinforced composite for extrusion-based 3D printing","volume":"202","author":"Ma","year":"2019","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"2208","article-title":"Effects of polypropylene fibers on compressive and flexural strength of concrete material","volume":"9","author":"Mashrei","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Civ. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113072","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2020.113072","article-title":"Mechanical properties of carbon fiber reinforced concrete (CFRC) after exposure to high temperatures","volume":"256","author":"Guo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.130173","article-title":"A review on the variation of mechanical properties of carbon fibre-reinforced concrete","volume":"366","author":"Muthukumarana","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2007.01.002","article-title":"The effect of silica fume and high-volume Class C fly ash on mechanical properties, chloride penetration and freeze\u2013thaw resistance of self-compacting concrete","volume":"22","year":"2008","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2014.12.005","article-title":"Moisture equilibrium of cement based materials containing slag or silica fume and exposed to repeated sorption cycles","volume":"69","author":"Saeidpour","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120007","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.120007","article-title":"Development of pore structure, moisture sorption and transport properties in fly ash blended cement-based materials","volume":"261","author":"Linderoth","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2018.12.179","article-title":"Assessing the effect of GGBS content and aggregate characteristics on drying shrinkage of roller compacted concrete","volume":"201","author":"Saluja","year":"2019","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Fulton, F.S., Van Aardt, J.H.P., and Visser, S. (1974). The Properties of Portland Cements Containing Milled Granulated Blastfurnace Slag, The Portland Cement Institute."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121789","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.121789","article-title":"Durability performance and dimensional stability of road concrete containing dry-shake surface hardener admixture","volume":"274","author":"Karakuzu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140574","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2025.140574","article-title":"The synergistic effect of recycled steel fibers and rubber aggregates from waste tires on the basic properties, drying shrinkage, and pore structures of cement concrete","volume":"470","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1520\/JTE103028","article-title":"Free shrinkage of high performance steel fiber reinforced concrete","volume":"39","author":"Bandelj","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Test. Eval."}],"container-title":["Buildings"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-5309\/15\/24\/4564\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]],"date-time":"2025-12-19T05:16:08Z","timestamp":1766121368000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-5309\/15\/24\/4564"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,17]]},"references-count":81,"journal-issue":{"issue":"24","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["buildings15244564"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/buildings15244564","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-5309"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-5309","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,17]]}}}