{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]],"date-time":"2026-01-13T12:14:35Z","timestamp":1768306475540,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,9]],"date-time":"2026-01-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767916800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DRI\/India\/0645\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DRI\/India\/0645\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UID\/04708"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/04708"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Buildings"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The structural vulnerability of RC structures during major seismic events raises several concerns regarding structural design and behaviour. Additionally, corrosion\u2019s impact on steel and concrete, including a reduction in ductility, confinement and strength, can compromise structural performance, especially for reversal loading. This work investigates the combined effect of corrosion and seismic actions on the structural performance of RC structures. Numerical models of RC structures with 0%, 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% corrosion were proposed. The effect of corrosion in the numerical models was calibrated based on experimental studies carried out on corroded RC elements. Afterwards, we considered the scenario of corrosion in all peripheral structural elements of 5- and 10-storey MRF structures in three distinct conditions. To enforce vertical irregularity, we have imposed vertical irregularity at the ground level in each structure. An adaptive pushover analysis was performed to assess the effect of corrosion and vertical irregularity on the seismic response. The results demonstrate that, for the levels of 5% and 10% corrosion, uniform corrosion produces a deleterious impact on structural responses in 10- and 5-storey MRF structures, respectively, regardless of the level of irregularity of the elevation. However, the irregularity generates a higher impact in the seismic response than the uniformly distributed corrosion in height. The combined effect of those parameters must be considered in seismic codes for new and existing buildings in order to maintain safe performance levels.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings16020288","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,9]],"date-time":"2026-01-09T16:03:16Z","timestamp":1767974596000},"page":"288","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Numerical Study on Influence of Corrosion and Vertical Irregularities on Seismic Behaviour of RC Frame Structures"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0932-7520","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Davi","family":"Santos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CONSTRUCT, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9684-351X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"Melo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CONSTRUCT, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1215-8051","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andr\u00e9","family":"Furtado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CERIS, Department of Civil Engineering, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, University of Lisbon, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0215-8701","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Humberto","family":"Varum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CONSTRUCT, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2004). Eurocode 8: Design of Structures for Earthquake Resistance\u2014Part 1: General Rules, Seismic Actions and Rules for Buildings (Standard No. CEN EN 1998-1)."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.7764\/RDLC.22.3.597","article-title":"Seismic Analysis of RC Building Frames with Vertical Mass and Stiffness Irregularities Using Adaptive Pushover Analysis","volume":"22","author":"Benaied","year":"2023","journal-title":"Rev. Construcci\u00f3n"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1007\/s10518-023-01843-3","article-title":"Damage Observations of RC Buildings from 2023 Kahramanmara\u015f Earthquake Sequence and Discussion on the Seismic Code Regulations","volume":"23","author":"Vuran","year":"2024","journal-title":"Bull. Earthq. Eng."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"I\u015f\u0131k, E., Avcil, F., B\u00fcy\u00fcksara\u00e7, A., and Arkan, E. (2025). Comparative Analysis of Target Displacements in RC Buildings for 2023 T\u00fcrkiye Earthquakes. Appl. Sci., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/app15074014"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santos, D., Melo, J., and Varum, H. (2024). Comparative Analysis of the Impact of Vertical Irregularities on Reinforced Concrete Moment-Resisting Frame Structures According to Eurocode 8. Buildings, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings14092982"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1016\/j.strusafe.2008.09.006","article-title":"Seismic Assessment of Existing RC Structures Affected by Degradation Phenomena","volume":"31","author":"Berto","year":"2009","journal-title":"Struct. Saf."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5374","DOI":"10.1080\/19648189.2021.1896582","article-title":"Nonlinear Structural Performance and Seismic Fragility of Corroded Reinforced Concrete Structures: Modelling Guidelines","volume":"26","author":"Kashani","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Environ. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2014.06.043","article-title":"Experimental Evaluation of the Corrosion Influence on the Cyclic Behaviour of RC Columns","volume":"76","author":"Meda","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"1053","article-title":"Seismic Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Columns with Corroded Deformed Reinforcing Bars","volume":"113","author":"Goksu","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACI Struct. J."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.06.002","article-title":"La Experimental Research on Hysteretic Behaviors of Corroded Reinforced Concrete Columns with Different Maximum Amounts of Corrosion of Rebar","volume":"121","author":"Yang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2018.05.097","article-title":"Corroded Reinforced Concrete Columns under Simulated Seismic Loading","volume":"171","author":"Rajput","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114037","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2022.114037","article-title":"Influence of Localised Corrosion on the Cyclic Response of Reinforced Concrete Columns","volume":"256","author":"Rinaldi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108860","DOI":"10.1016\/j.istruc.2025.108860","article-title":"Prediction of Seismic Performance Levels of Corroded RC Frames Based on Crack Width","volume":"76","author":"Turan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Structures"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119479","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2024.119479","article-title":"An Experimental Evaluation on Structural Performance Level of Corroded Reinforced Concrete Frames","volume":"325","author":"Turan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110397","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2020.110397","article-title":"Corrosion Effects on the Seismic Response of Existing RC Frames Designed According to Different Building Codes","volume":"216","author":"Berto","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119931","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2025.119931","article-title":"Time-Dependent Tsunami Fragility Analysis for Reinforced Concrete Building Stock","volume":"330","author":"Lignola","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126718","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.126718","article-title":"A Review on Corrosion Detection and Protection of Existing Reinforced Concrete (RC) Structures","volume":"325","author":"Hu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1080\/13632460409350498","article-title":"Advantages and Limitations of Adaptive and Non-Adaptive Force-Based Pushover Procedures","volume":"8","author":"Antoniou","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Earthq. Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1080\/13632460409350504","article-title":"Development and Verification of a Displacement-Based Adaptive Pushover Procedure","volume":"8","author":"Antoniou","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Earthq. Eng."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1007\/s41062-024-01561-y","article-title":"Extending the Concepts of Response Spectrum Analysis to Nonlinear Static Analysis: Does It Make Sense?","volume":"9","author":"Ruggieri","year":"2024","journal-title":"Innov. Infrastruct. Solut."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caixinhas, A., Tom\u00e9, J., Melo, J., Marreneca, G., and Furtado, A. (2025). Impact of Corrosion on the Behaviour of Reinforced Concrete Buildings. Buildings, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings15081267"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"(2021). SeismoStruct 2021\u2014A Computer Program for Static and Dynamic Nonlinear Analysis of Framed Structures, Seismosoft."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2014.11.025","article-title":"Cyclic Behaviour of Uncorroded and Corroded Steel Reinforcing Bars","volume":"76","author":"Caprili","year":"2015","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2012.02.071","article-title":"Tensile and Fatigue Behavior of Corroded Rebars","volume":"34","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2017.04.209","article-title":"Degradation Relationships for the Mechanical Properties of Corroded Steel Rebars","volume":"148","author":"Imperatore","year":"2017","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2018.10.088","article-title":"Structural Response of Reinforcing Bars Affected by Pitting Corrosion: Experimental Evaluation","volume":"192","author":"Finozzi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Salvatore, W., Caprili, S., Braconi, A., Finetto, M., Bianco, L., Ascanio, C., Moersch, J., Apostolopoulos, C., and Ferreira Pimenra, G. (2014). Effects of Corrosion on Low-Cycle Fatigue (Seismic) Behaviour of High-Strength Steel Reinforcing Bars (Rustell), European Union Research."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739625","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/739625","article-title":"Mechanical Performance versus Corrosion Damage Indicators for Corroded Steel Reinforcing Bars","volume":"2015","author":"Caprili","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Monti, G., Nuti, C., and Santini, S. (1996). CYRUS-Cyclic Response of Upgraded Sections, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi G. D\u2019Annunzio di Chieti."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1804","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9445(1988)114:8(1804)","article-title":"Theoretical Stress-Strain Model for Confined Concrete","volume":"114","author":"Mander","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Struct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02486385","article-title":"Confined Concrete Model under Cyclic Load","volume":"30","author":"Elnashai","year":"1997","journal-title":"Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)BE.1943-5592.0000197","article-title":"Performance Evaluation of Deteriorating Highway Bridges Located in High Seismic Areas","volume":"16","author":"Alipour","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Bridge Eng."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1080\/15732479.2016.1198402","article-title":"Simplified Structural Deterioration Model for Reinforced Concrete Bridge Piers under Cyclic Loading","volume":"13","author":"Rao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Struct. Infrastruct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2016.02.051","article-title":"Nonlinear Fibre Element Modelling of RC Bridge Piers Considering Inelastic Buckling of Reinforcement","volume":"116","author":"Kashani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"714","DOI":"10.1080\/15732479.2017.1359631","article-title":"Exploring the Impact of Chloride-Induced Corrosion on Seismic Damage Limit States and Residual Capacity of Reinforced Concrete Structures","volume":"14","author":"Madandoust","year":"2018","journal-title":"Struct. Infrastruct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2002). Eurocode\u2014Basis of Structural Design (Standard No. CEN EN 1990)."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2024). Eurocode 8: Design of Structures for Earthquake Resistance\u2014Part 1-2: Rules for New Buildings, Draft Post-ENQ 48th Meeting CEN\/TC250\/SC8 (Standard No. CEN PrEN 1998-1-2)."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2004). Eurocode 2\u2014Design of Concrete Structures\u2014Part 1\u20131: General Rules and Rules for Buildings (Standard No. CEN EN 1992-1-1)."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2007). Concrete\u2014Part 1: Specification, Performance, Production and Conformity (Standard No. CEN EN 206)."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"(2005). Steel for the Reinforcement of Concrete\u2014Weldable Reinforcing Steel\u2014General (Standard No. CEN EN 10080)."}],"container-title":["Buildings"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-5309\/16\/2\/288\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]],"date-time":"2026-01-13T05:12:01Z","timestamp":1768281121000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-5309\/16\/2\/288"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,9]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["buildings16020288"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/buildings16020288","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-5309"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-5309","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,9]]}}}