{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,21]],"date-time":"2026-04-21T02:12:54Z","timestamp":1776737574718,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,20]],"date-time":"2026-02-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771545600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Shaanxi Provincial Department of Education Service Local Special Research Program Project","award":["23JE019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["23JE019"]}]},{"name":"Shaanxi Provincial Department of Education Service Local Special Research Program Project","award":["22JE018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["22JE018"]}]},{"name":"Shaanxi Provincial Department of Education Service Local Special Research Program Project","award":["23JE018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["23JE018"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Buildings"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The construction of traditional underground utility tunnels faces prominent challenges, including high costs, long construction cycles, and limited workspace. Although 3D printing technology offers an effective solution to these issues, its practical application is largely constrained by key performance factors such as the printability, early strength, and interlayer bonding of concrete materials. This study aims to develop a 3D-printable concrete material specifically suited for the construction of underground utility tunnels. Through collaborative optimization of parameters such as the water\u2013binder ratio, additives, and fiber content using single-factor and orthogonal tests, the optimal mix proportion was determined: a water\u2013binder ratio of 0.30, a 10% dosage of rapid-hardening sulphoaluminate cement (R\u00b7SAC), a sand-to-binder ratio of 1.0, 20% mineral admixtures (15% fly ash + 5% silica fume), and a 1.0% volume fraction of polypropylene fibers. The results indicate that the fresh paste achieved a flowability of 192 mm, demonstrating excellent printability. Specimens printed using a sawtooth toolpath reached a 3-day compressive strength of 37.8 MPa, with 28-day compressive and flexural strengths increasing to 56.3 MPa and 7.8 MPa, respectively, and an interlayer bond strength of 3.5 MPa. Crucially, the compressive and flexural anisotropy coefficients were as low as 0.023 and 0.066, respectively, showing a preliminary exploratory trend superior to levels reported in some literature and suggesting the potential of printed components to improve structural performance consistency. This material system not only meets the requirements of 3D printing for early strength and workability but also, by introducing R\u00b7SAC to form a low-alkalinity binder system, provides a potential pathway for enhancing long-term durability in corrosive environments. This study offers a reliable theoretical and experimental basis for the application of 3D printing technology in underground engineering. Long-term durability will remain a primary focus of subsequent research.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings16040859","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]],"date-time":"2026-02-23T14:05:11Z","timestamp":1771855511000},"page":"859","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Optimization and Performance Study of 3D Printed Concrete Mixture for Underground Utility Tunnels"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Peixi","family":"Guo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering, Xijing University, Xi\u2019an 710123, China"},{"name":"Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Safety and Durability of Concrete Structures, Xi\u2019an 710123, China"}]},{"given":"Hanwen","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering, Xijing University, Xi\u2019an 710123, China"}]},{"given":"Enmu","family":"Ge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering, Xijing University, Xi\u2019an 710123, China"}]},{"given":"Ming","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering, Xijing University, Xi\u2019an 710123, China"}]},{"given":"Hang","family":"Jia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering, Xijing University, Xi\u2019an 710123, China"}]},{"given":"Yao","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering, Xijing University, Xi\u2019an 710123, China"},{"name":"Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Safety and Durability of Concrete Structures, Xi\u2019an 710123, China"}]},{"given":"Xinyu","family":"Fan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"PowerChina Northwest Engineering Corporation Limited, Xi\u2019an 710065, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"784","DOI":"10.1108\/RPJ-09-2016-0154","article-title":"A review of 3D concrete printing systems and materials properties: Current status and future research prospects","volume":"24","author":"Paul","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rapid Prototyp. 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