{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,1]],"date-time":"2026-02-01T04:26:07Z","timestamp":1769919967598,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,27]],"date-time":"2021-01-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1611705600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000921","name":"European Cooperation in Science and Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["CA18117"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CA18117"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000921","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cancers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>More than 50% of all gynecologic tumors can be classified as rare (defined as an incidence of \u22646 per 100,000 women) and usually have a poor prognosis owing to delayed diagnosis and treatment. In contrast to almost all other common solid tumors, the treatment of rare gynecologic tumors (RGT) is often based on expert opinion, retrospective studies, or extrapolation from other tumor sites with similar histology, leading to difficulty in developing guidelines for clinical practice. Currently, gynecologic cancer research, due to distinct scientific and technological challenges, is lagging behind. Moreover, the overall efforts for addressing these challenges are fragmented across different European countries and indeed, worldwide. The GYNOCARE, COST Action CA18117 (European Network for Gynecological Rare Cancer Research) programme aims to address these challenges through the creation of a unique network between key stakeholders covering distinct domains from concept to cure: basic research on RGT, biobanking, bridging with industry, and setting up the legal and regulatory requirements for international innovative clinical trials. On this basis, members of this COST Action, (Working Group 1, \u201cBasic and Translational Research on Rare Gynecological Cancer\u201d) have decided to focus their future efforts on the development of new approaches to improve the diagnosis and treatment of RGT. Here, we provide a brief overview of the current state-of-the-art and describe the goals of this COST Action and its future challenges with the aim to stimulate discussion and promote synergy across scientists engaged in the fight against this rare cancer worldwide.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers13030493","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,27]],"date-time":"2021-01-27T20:21:51Z","timestamp":1611778911000},"page":"493","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["GYNOCARE Update: Modern Strategies to Improve Diagnosis and Treatment of Rare Gynecologic Tumors\u2014Current Challenges and Future Directions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4905-6948","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Riccardo","family":"Di Fiore","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, University of Malta, MSD 2080 Msida, Malta"},{"name":"Center for Biotechnology, Sbarro Institute for Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, College of Science and Technology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0530-6650","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sherif","family":"Suleiman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, University of Malta, MSD 2080 Msida, Malta"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4146-0663","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bridget","family":"Ellul","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Molecular Medicine &amp; Biobanking, University of Malta, MSD 2080 Msida, Malta"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9260-3225","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sharon A.","family":"O\u2019Toole","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Obstetrics and Gynaecology and Histopathology, Trinity St James\u2019s Cancer Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 8, Ireland"}]},{"given":"Charles","family":"Savona-Ventura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, University of Malta, MSD 2080 Msida, Malta"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2653-2262","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana","family":"Felix","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, Campo dos M\u00e1rtires da P\u00e1tria, Instituto Portugues de Oncologia de Lisboa, NOVA Medical School, UNL, 130, 1169-056 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4378-6838","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valerio","family":"Napolioni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Genomic And Molecular Epidemiology (GAME) Lab., School of Biosciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Camerino, 62032 Camerino, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5921-7114","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Neil T.","family":"Conlon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Cellular Biotechnology, Dublin City University, Glasnevin, 9 Dublin, Ireland"}]},{"given":"Ilker","family":"Kahramanoglu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gynecologic Oncology, Emsey Hospital, Istanbul 3400, Turkey"}]},{"given":"Miriam J.","family":"Azzopardi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Directorate for Health Information and Research, PTA 1313 G\u2019Mangia, Malta"}]},{"given":"Miriam","family":"Dalmas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Office of the Chief Medical Officer, Department of Policy in Health, Ministry for Health, 15 Merchants Street, VLT 1171 Valletta, Malta"}]},{"given":"Neville","family":"Calleja","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Directorate for Health Information and Research, PTA 1313 G\u2019Mangia, Malta"}]},{"given":"Mark R.","family":"Brincat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Mater Dei Hospital, Triq Dun Karm, MSD 2090 Msida, Malta"}]},{"given":"Yves","family":"Muscat-Baron","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Mater Dei Hospital, Triq Dun Karm, MSD 2090 Msida, Malta"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6968-2327","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maja","family":"Sabol","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory for Hereditary Cancer, Division of Molecular Medicine, Ru\u0111er Bo\u0161kovi\u0107 Institute, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0410-1645","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vera","family":"Dimitrievska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of American College, 1000 Skopje, North Macedonia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7719-382X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Angel","family":"Yordanov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gynecologic Oncology, Medical University Pleven, 5800 Pleven, Bulgaria"}]},{"given":"Mariela","family":"Vasileva-Slaveva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgery, Alexandrovska University Hospital, 1431 Sofia, Bulgaria"}]},{"given":"Kristelle","family":"von Brockdorff","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sir Anthony Mamo Oncology Centre, Department of Oncology and Radiotherapy, Mater Dei Hospital, MSD 2090 Msida, Malta"}]},{"given":"Rachel A.","family":"Micallef","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sir Anthony Mamo Oncology Centre, Department of Oncology and Radiotherapy, Mater Dei Hospital, MSD 2090 Msida, Malta"}]},{"given":"Paul","family":"Kubelac","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Oncology, The Oncology Institute \u201cProf. Dr. Ion Chiricu\u0163\u0103\u201d. 34\u201336 Republicii Street, 400015 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"},{"name":"Department of Oncology, \u201cIuliu Hatieganu\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"}]},{"given":"Patriciu","family":"Achima\u0219-Cadariu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oncology, \u201cIuliu Hatieganu\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"},{"name":"Department of Surgical Oncology, The Oncology Institute \u201cProf. Dr. Ion Chiricuta\u201d, 400015 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"}]},{"given":"Catalin","family":"Vlad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oncology, \u201cIuliu Hatieganu\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"},{"name":"Department of Surgery, The Oncology Institute \u201cProf. Dr. Ion Chiricuta\u201d, 400015 Cluj Napoca, Romania"}]},{"given":"Olga","family":"Tzortzatou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens, Soranou Efesiou 4 str., 11527 Athens, Greece"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1836-1579","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Robert","family":"Poka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Debrecen, Nagyerdei krt. 98, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary"}]},{"given":"Antonio","family":"Giordano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Biotechnology, Sbarro Institute for Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, College of Science and Technology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA"},{"name":"Department of Medical Biotechnologies, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy"}]},{"given":"Alex","family":"Felice","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre of Molecular Medicine and BioBanking, Department of Physiology &amp; Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine &amp; Surgery, University of Malta, MSD 2080 Msida, Malta"}]},{"given":"Nicholas","family":"Reed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beatson Oncology Centre, Gartnavel General Hospital, 1053 Great Western Road, Glasgow G12 0YN, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9177-8165","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"C. Simon","family":"Herrington","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cancer Research UK Edinburgh Centre, Western General Hospital, University of Edinburgh, Crewe Road South, Edinburgh EH4 2XR, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2131-620X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Faraggi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Statistics, University of Haifa, Haifa 31905, Israel"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6369-0297","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jean","family":"Calleja-Agius","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, University of Malta, MSD 2080 Msida, Malta"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1080\/21678707.2017.1264300","article-title":"Rare tumors in gynaecological cancers and the lack of therapeutic options and clinical trials","volume":"5","author":"Mandilaras","year":"2017","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Orphan Drugs"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"WHO Classification of Tumors Editoral Board (2020). Female Genital Tumors, IARC. [5th ed.]. Available online: https:\/\/publications.iarc.fr\/592."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e282","DOI":"10.14694\/EdBook_AM.2014.34.e282","article-title":"Novel approaches to improve the treatment of rare gynecologic cancers: Research opportunities and challenges","volume":"34","author":"Ledermann","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. Educ. Book"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2020, December 17). Rarecare.net. Available online: http:\/\/www.rarecare.eu\/default.asp."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"viii39","DOI":"10.1093\/annonc\/mdi966","article-title":"The Gynecologic Cancer Intergroup (GCIG): History and current status","volume":"16","author":"Vermorken","year":"2005","journal-title":"Annal. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"718","DOI":"10.1093\/annonc\/mdw662","article-title":"Fifth Ovarian Cancer Consensus Conference of the Gynecologic Cancer InterGroup (GCIG): Clinical trial design for rare ovarian tumours","volume":"28","author":"Leary","year":"2017","journal-title":"Annl. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.1097\/IGC.0b013e31821b2568","article-title":"2010 Gynecologic Cancer InterGroup (GCIG) consensus statement on clinical trials in ovarian cancer: Report from the Fourth Ovarian Cancer Consensus Conference","volume":"21","author":"Stuart","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Gynecol. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygyno.2020.03.001","article-title":"Rare Gynecologic Tumors: Coming of Age","volume":"157","author":"Gershenson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gynecol. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejso.2017.09.025","article-title":"Rare ovarian tumours: Epidemiology, treatment challenges in and outside a network setting","volume":"45","author":"Trama","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Surg. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"European Commission (2020, December 21). Communication No. 679\/2008 of 11 November 2008 to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on Rare Diseases: Europe\u2019s Challenges. Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/health\/ph_threats\/non_com\/docs\/rare_com_en.pdf."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"(2020, December 15). Joint Action Rare Cancers. Available online: Jointactionrarecancers.eu\/index.php\/cpmments\/faqs."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"(2020, December 01). European Collaboration in Science and Technology. Available online: https:\/\/www.cost.eu\/actions\/CA18117\/#tabs|Name:overview."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"(2020, December 10). European Society of Gynaecological Oncology. Available online: https:\/\/guidelines.esgo.org\/rare-cancers-algorithms\/."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S30","DOI":"10.1097\/IGC.0000000000000293","article-title":"Gynecologic Cancer InterGroup (GCIG) consensus review for ovarian small cell cancers","volume":"24","author":"Reed","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Gynecol. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S61","DOI":"10.1097\/IGC.0000000000000261","article-title":"Gynecologic Cancer InterGroup (GCIG) consensus review: Uterine and ovarian leiomyosarcomas","volume":"2","author":"Hensley","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Gynecol. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S90","DOI":"10.1097\/IGC.0000000000000297","article-title":"Gynecologic Cancer InterGroup (GCIG) consensus review for clear cell carcinoma of the uterine corpus and cervix","volume":"24","author":"Hasegawa","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Gynecol. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-019-1922-3","article-title":"Biobanking in health care: Evolution and future directions","volume":"17","author":"Coppola","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1007\/s13167-018-0153-7","article-title":"Biobanks in Horizon 2020: Sustainability and attractive perspectives","volume":"9","year":"2018","journal-title":"EPMA J."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"ISO Standards (2020, November 24). ISO 20387:2018. Available online: https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/67888.html."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"ISO Standards (2020, November 24). ISO 9001:2015. Available online: https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/62085.html."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adishesh, M., and Hapangama, D.K. (2019). Enriching Personalized Endometrial Cancer Research with the Harmonization of Biobanking Standards. Cancers (Basel), 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers11111734"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"(2020, November 20). BBMRI-ERIC. Available online: www.bbmri-eric.eu."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03036737","article-title":"New molecular methods for classification, diagnosis and therapy prediction of hematological malignancies","volume":"8","author":"Zvara","year":"2002","journal-title":"Pathol. Oncol. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12975","DOI":"10.1111\/aji.12975","article-title":"Multi-omics in high-grade serous ovarian cancer: Biomarkers from genome to the immunome","volume":"80","author":"Clifford","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Reprod. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e52","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(15)00386-1","article-title":"Rare cancers: A sea of opportunity","volume":"17","author":"Boyd","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1595","DOI":"10.1158\/1535-7163.MCT-17-1107","article-title":"Clinical Next-Generation Sequencing for Precision Oncology in Rare Cancers","volume":"17","author":"Groisberg","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Cancer Ther."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"646","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2011.02.013","article-title":"Hallmarks of cancer: The next generation","volume":"144","author":"Hanahan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1186\/s13073-019-0703-1","article-title":"Molecular profiling for precision cancer therapies","volume":"12","author":"Malone","year":"2020","journal-title":"Genome Med."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2013","DOI":"10.1002\/cam4.2064","article-title":"Impact of molecular testing in clinical practice in gynecologic cancers","volume":"8","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cancer Med."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1186\/gm421","article-title":"Proteomics: Improving biomarker translation to modern medicine?","volume":"5","author":"Guest","year":"2013","journal-title":"Genome Med."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1038\/35015701","article-title":"Genomics, gene expression and DNA arrays","volume":"405","author":"Lockhart","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"836","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2017.05.146","article-title":"Mass spectrometry as a tool for biomarkers searching in gynecological oncology","volume":"92","author":"Banach","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1559","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1112014","article-title":"The transcriptional landscape of the mammalian genome","volume":"309","author":"Carninci","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104209","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/104209","article-title":"Next-generation technologies for multiomics approaches including interactome sequencing","volume":"2015","author":"Ohashi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biomed. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Njoku, K., Chiasserini, D., Whetton, A.D., and Crosbie, E.J. (2019). Proteomic Biomarkers for the Detection of Endometrial Cancer. Cancers (Basel), 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers11101572"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bleotu, C., Socolov, D., Anton, M., and Botezatu, A. (2016). Gynecologic Cancers\u2013Basic Sciences, Clinical and Therapeutic Perspectives, IntechOpen. Available online: https:\/\/www.intechopen.com\/books\/gynecologic-cancers-basic-sciences-clinical-and-therapeutic-perspectives\/interplay-of-epigenetics-with-gynecological-cancer.","DOI":"10.5772\/61032"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1200\/EDBK_200203","article-title":"The Epigenetic Landscape in the Treatment of Gynecologic Malignancies","volume":"38","author":"Eskander","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. Educ. Book."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.2217\/bmm.10.72","article-title":"Epigenomics and ovarian carcinoma","volume":"4","author":"Maldonado","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biomark. Med."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccell.2018.07.008","article-title":"Cancer-specific splicing changes and the potential for splicing-derived neoantigens","volume":"34","author":"Hoyos","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miyagi, Y., Higashiyama, M., Gochi, A., Akaike, M., Ishikawa, T., Miura, T., Saruki, N., Bando, E., Kimura, H., and Imamura, F. (2011). Plasma free amino acid profiling of five types of cancer patients and its application for early detection. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0024143"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbcan.2018.04.009","article-title":"Applications of Metabolomics to Study Cancer Metabolism","volume":"1870","author":"Kaushik","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moloney, B.M., Gilligan, K.E., Joyce, D.P., O\u2019Neill, C.P., O\u2019Brien, K.P., Khan, S., Glynn, C.L., Waldron, R.M., Maguire, C.M., and Holian, E. (2020). Investigating the Potential and Pitfalls of EV-Encapsulated MicroRNAs as Circulating Biomarkers of Breast Cancer. Cells, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells9010141"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Devaja, O., and Papadopoulos, A. (2018). The Role of Circulating Biomarkers in the Early Diagnosis of Ovarian Cancer. Ovarian Cancer from Pathogenesis to Treatment, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/66599"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canlet.2019.10.014","article-title":"Liquid biopsy in ovarian cancer using circulating tumor DNA and cells: Ready for prime time?","volume":"468","author":"Asante","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cancer Lett."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1179299X19830977","DOI":"10.1177\/1179299X19830977","article-title":"Urine Biomarkers for the Early Detection of Ovarian Cancer\u2014Are We There Yet?","volume":"11","author":"Grayson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biomark. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3279","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers3033279","article-title":"Assessment of the evolution of cancer treatment therapies","volume":"3","author":"Arruebo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cancers (Basel)"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1007\/s00280-017-3501-8","article-title":"Advances in ovarian cancer therapy","volume":"81","author":"Cortez","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Muralikrishnan, V., Hurley, T.D., and Nephew, K.P. (2020). Targeting Aldehyde Dehydrogenases to Eliminate Cancer Stem Cells in Gynecologic Malignancies. Cancers (Basel), 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers12040961"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1993","DOI":"10.1007\/s11033-014-3047-3","article-title":"Side populations from cervical-cancer-derived cell lines have stem-cell-like properties","volume":"41","author":"Garrido","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2462","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.1578","article-title":"High aldehyde dehydrogenase activity identifies cancer stem cells in human cervical cancer","volume":"4","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2042","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.25856","article-title":"The adult stem cell marker Musashi-1 modulates endometrial carcinoma cell cycle progression and apoptosis via Notch-1 and p21WAF1\/CIP1","volume":"129","author":"Gotte","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4299","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-08-1883","article-title":"Cells with characteristics of cancer stem\/progenitor cells express the CD133 antigen in human endometrial tumors","volume":"15","author":"Rutella","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.2353\/ajpath.2010.090056","article-title":"Endometrial cancer side-population cells show prominent migration and have a potential to differentiate into the mesenchymal cell lineage","volume":"176","author":"Kato","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4311","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-08-0364","article-title":"Identification and characterization of ovarian cancer-initiating cells from primary human tumors","volume":"68","author":"Zhang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3915","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-010-0420-9","article-title":"Identification of cancer stem cell-like cells from human epithelial ovarian carcinoma cell line","volume":"67","author":"Shi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3991","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-10-3175","article-title":"Aldehyde dehydrogenase in combination with CD133 defines angiogenic ovarian cancer stem cells that portend poor patient survival","volume":"71","author":"Silva","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3025","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-04-3931","article-title":"Stem and progenitor-like cells contribute to the aggressive behavior of human epithelial ovarian cancer","volume":"65","author":"Bapat","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2672","DOI":"10.1038\/onc.2010.35","article-title":"CD24 + cells from hierarchically organized ovarian cancer are enriched in cancer stem cells","volume":"29","author":"Gao","year":"2010","journal-title":"Oncogene"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5109","DOI":"10.21873\/anticanres.11080","article-title":"Immunological and Clinical Impact of Cancer Stem Cells in Vulvar Cancer: Role of CD133\/CD24\/ABCG2-Expressing Cells","volume":"36","author":"Napoletano","year":"2016","journal-title":"Anticancer Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1537","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2019.01537","article-title":"Ovarian Cancer Targeted Theranostics","volume":"9","author":"Nimmagadda","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2487","DOI":"10.2217\/nnm-2018-0443","article-title":"Next-generation nanotheranostics targeting cancer stem cells","volume":"14","author":"Reda","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nanomedicine (London)"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111007","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2020.111007","article-title":"CRISPR technology: The engine that drives cancer therapy","volume":"133","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2062","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.02062","article-title":"CRISPR\/Cas: From Tumor Gene Editing to T Cell-Based Immunotherapy of Cancer","volume":"11","author":"Ghasemi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chow, S., Berek, J.S., and Dorigo, O. (2020). Development of Therapeutic Vaccines for Ovarian Cancer. Vaccines (Basel), 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines8040657"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.4103\/ijmr.IJMR_915_14","article-title":"Rare cancers: Challenges & issues","volume":"145","author":"Pillai","year":"2017","journal-title":"Indian J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1097\/GCO.0000000000000144","article-title":"New clinical research strategies for rare gynecologic malignancies","volume":"27","author":"Ledermann","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Obstet. Gynecol."}],"container-title":["Cancers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6694\/13\/3\/493\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:16:21Z","timestamp":1760159781000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6694\/13\/3\/493"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,27]]},"references-count":66,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2]]}},"alternative-id":["cancers13030493"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cancers13030493","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6694"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6694","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,27]]}}}