{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,2]],"date-time":"2026-05-02T06:41:56Z","timestamp":1777704116087,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":675,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,18]],"date-time":"2022-05-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1652832000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Marie Sk\u0142odowska-Curie Innovative Training Network (ITN) pH and Ion Transport in Pancreatic Cancer\u2013pHioniC","award":["813834"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["813834"]}]},{"name":"European Marie Sk\u0142odowska-Curie Innovative Training Network (ITN) pH and Ion Transport in Pancreatic Cancer\u2013pHioniC","award":["H2020-MSCA-ITN-2018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["H2020-MSCA-ITN-2018"]}]},{"name":"Programma Operativo Complementare Ricerca e Innovazione, Asse \u201cInvestimenti in Capitale Umano\u201d\u2014Azione I.1 \u201cDottorati innovativi concaratterizzazione industriale\u201d del PON R&amp;I 2014\u20132020","award":["813834"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["813834"]}]},{"name":"Programma Operativo Complementare Ricerca e Innovazione, Asse \u201cInvestimenti in Capitale Umano\u201d\u2014Azione I.1 \u201cDottorati innovativi concaratterizzazione industriale\u201d del PON R&amp;I 2014\u20132020","award":["H2020-MSCA-ITN-2018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["H2020-MSCA-ITN-2018"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cancers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a very aggressive tumor with a poor prognosis and inadequate response to treatment. Many factors contribute to this therapeutic failure: lack of symptoms until the tumor reaches an advanced stage, leading to late diagnosis; early lymphatic and hematic spread; advanced age of patients; important development of a pro-tumoral and hyperfibrotic stroma; high genetic and metabolic heterogeneity; poor vascular supply; a highly acidic matrix; extreme hypoxia; and early development of resistance to the available therapeutic options. In most cases, the disease is silent for a long time, andwhen it does become symptomatic, it is too late for ablative surgery; this is one of the major reasons explaining the short survival associated with the disease. Even when surgery is possible, relapsesare frequent, andthe causes of this devastating picture are the low efficacy ofand early resistance to all known chemotherapeutic treatments. Thus, it is imperative to analyze the roots of this resistance in order to improve the benefits of therapy. PDAC chemoresistance is the final product of different, but to some extent, interconnected factors. Surgery, being the most adequate treatment for pancreatic cancer and the only one that in a few selected cases can achieve longer survival, is only possible in less than 20% of patients. Thus, the treatment burden relies on chemotherapy in mostcases. While the FOLFIRINOX scheme has a slightly longer overall survival, it also produces many more adverse eventsso that gemcitabine is still considered the first choice for treatment, especially in combination with other compounds\/agents. This review discusses the multiple causes of gemcitabine resistance in PDAC.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers14102486","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,18]],"date-time":"2022-05-18T11:59:37Z","timestamp":1652875177000},"page":"2486","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":94,"title":["Resistance to Gemcitabine in Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma: A Physiopathologic and Pharmacologic Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Tomas","family":"Koltai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Via Pier Capponi 6, 50132 Florence, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9757-5908","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stephan Joel","family":"Reshkin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari, 70126 Bari, Italy"}]},{"given":"Tiago M. A.","family":"Carvalho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari, 70126 Bari, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4696-9944","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daria","family":"Di Molfetta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari, 70126 Bari, Italy"}]},{"given":"Maria Raffaella","family":"Greco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari, 70126 Bari, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8656-6117","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Khalid Omer","family":"Alfarouk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Zamzam Research Center, Zamzam University College, Khartoum 11123, Sudan"},{"name":"Alfarouk Biomedical Research LLC, Temple Terrace, FL 33617, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2011-9135","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rosa Angela","family":"Cardone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari, 70126 Bari, Italy"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2913","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-14-0155","article-title":"Projecting cancer incidence and deaths to 2030: The unexpected burden of thyroid, liver, and pancreas cancers in the United States","volume":"74","author":"Rahib","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e214708","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2021.4708","article-title":"Estimated projection of US cancer incidence and death to 2040","volume":"4","author":"Rahib","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. 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