{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,2]],"date-time":"2025-11-02T03:58:35Z","timestamp":1762055915464,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,22]],"date-time":"2022-06-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1655856000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SFRH\/BD\/111150\/2015","PTDC\/EAM-AMB\/30989\/2017","UIDB\/50006\/2020","UIDP\/50006\/2020","UIDB\/04462\/2020","UIDP\/04462\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BD\/111150\/2015","PTDC\/EAM-AMB\/30989\/2017","UIDB\/50006\/2020","UIDP\/50006\/2020","UIDB\/04462\/2020","UIDP\/04462\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Catalysts"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The development of effective disinfection treatment processes is crucial to help the water industry cope with the inevitable challenges resulting from the increase in human population and climate change. Climate change leads to heavy rainfall, flooding and hot weather events that are associated with waterborne diseases. Developing effective treatment technologies will improve our resilience to cope with these events and our capacity to safeguard public health. A submerged hybrid reactor was used to test the efficiency of membrane filtration, direct photolysis (using ultraviolet-C low-pressure mercury lamps, as well as ultraviolet-C and ultraviolet-A light-emitting diodes panels) and the combination of both treatment processes (membrane filtration and photolysis) to retain and inactivate water quality indicator bacteria. The developed photocatalytic membranes effectively retained the target microorganisms that were then successfully inactivated by photolysis and advanced oxidation processes. The new hybrid reactor could be a promising approach to treat drinking water, recreational water and wastewater produced by different industries in small-scale systems. Furthermore, the results obtained with membranes coated with titanium dioxide and copper combined with ultraviolet-A light sources show that the process may be a promising approach to guarantee water disinfection using natural sunlight.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/catal12070680","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,22]],"date-time":"2022-06-22T21:31:06Z","timestamp":1655933466000},"page":"680","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Retention and Inactivation of Quality Indicator Bacteria Using a Photocatalytic Membrane Reactor"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3818-535X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana Paula","family":"Marques","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"IBET-Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnol\u00f3gica, Apartado 12, 2780-901 Oeiras, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7411-4479","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rosa","family":"Huertas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IBET-Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnol\u00f3gica, Apartado 12, 2780-901 Oeiras, Portugal"},{"name":"Associated Laboratory for Green Chemistry (LAQV) of the Network of Chemistry and Technology (REQUIMTE), Department of Chemistry, NOVA School of Science and Technology, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Jorge","family":"Bernardo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Associated Laboratory for Green Chemistry (LAQV) of the Network of Chemistry and Technology (REQUIMTE), Department of Chemistry, NOVA School of Science and Technology, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Beatriz","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IBET-Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnol\u00f3gica, Apartado 12, 2780-901 Oeiras, Portugal"},{"name":"Instituto de Tecnologia Qu\u00edmica e Biol\u00f3gica Ant\u00f3nio Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. da Rep\u00fablica, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Jo\u00e3o Goul\u00e3o","family":"Crespo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Associated Laboratory for Green Chemistry (LAQV) of the Network of Chemistry and Technology (REQUIMTE), Department of Chemistry, NOVA School of Science and Technology, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Vanessa Jorge","family":"Pereira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IBET-Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnol\u00f3gica, Apartado 12, 2780-901 Oeiras, Portugal"},{"name":"Instituto de Tecnologia Qu\u00edmica e Biol\u00f3gica Ant\u00f3nio Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. da Rep\u00fablica, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/S1385-8947(01)00188-7","article-title":"New UV irradiation and direct electrolysis\u2014Promising methods for water disinfection","volume":"85","author":"Bergmann","year":"2002","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2019). Water, Sanitation, Hygiene and Health: A Primer for Health Professionals, World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/apps.who.int\/iris\/handle\/10665\/330100."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"World Health Organization & United Nations Children\u2019s Fund (UNICEF) (2014). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2014 Update, World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/apps.who.int\/iris\/handle\/10665\/112727."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.02.041","article-title":"Microorganisms inactivation by wavelength combinations of ultraviolet light-emitting diodes (UV-LEDs)","volume":"665","author":"Song","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.2175\/106143097X125137","article-title":"Testing the equivalency of ultraviolet light and chlorine for disinfection of wastewater to reclamation standards","volume":"69","author":"Oppenheimer","year":"1997","journal-title":"Water Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2004.09.002","article-title":"Drinking water treatment processes for removal of Cryptosporidium and Giardia","volume":"126","author":"Betancourt","year":"2004","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2005.10.030","article-title":"Inactivation credit of UV radiation for viruses, bacteria and protozoan (oo)cysts in water: A review","volume":"40","author":"Hijnen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.01.289","article-title":"Moving from the traditional paradigm of pathogen inactivation to controlling antibiotic resistance in water\u2014Role of ultraviolet irradiation","volume":"662","author":"Umar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2019.115108","article-title":"Small but powerful: Light-emitting diodes for inactivation of Aspergillus species in real water matrices","volume":"168","author":"Oliveira","year":"2020","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117788","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2019.117788","article-title":"Treatment of a real drinking water matrix spiked with Aspergillus fumigatus using a photocatalytic membrane reactor","volume":"598","author":"Oliveira","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117553","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2021.117553","article-title":"Light-emitting diodes effect on Aspergillus species in filtered surface water: DNA damage, proteome response and potential reactivation","volume":"287","author":"Oliveira","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112242","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jphotobiol.2021.112242","article-title":"Inactivation of Aspergillus species in real water matrices using medium pressure mercury lamps","volume":"221","author":"Oliveira","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dnarep.2007.09.002","article-title":"Repair of UV damage in bacteria","volume":"7","author":"Goosen","year":"2008","journal-title":"DNA Repair"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2017.04.009","article-title":"Bactericidal effect of 266 to 279 nm wavelength UVC-LEDs for inactivation of Gram positive and Gram negative foodborne pathogenic bacteria and yeasts","volume":"97","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mimet.2018.03.007","article-title":"Assessment of UV-C-induced water disinfection by differential PCR-based quantification of bacterial DNA damage","volume":"149","author":"Nocker","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Banas, M.A., Crawford, M.H., Ruby, D.S., Ross, M.P., Nelson, J.S., Allerman, A.A., and Boucher, R. (2005). Final LDRD Report: Ultraviolet Water Purification Systems for Rural Environments and Mobile Applications.","DOI":"10.2172\/876370"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01186-15","article-title":"Fundamental characteristics of deep-UV light-emitting diodes and their application to control foodborne pathogens","volume":"82","author":"Shin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1007\/s12393-020-09221-4","article-title":"Applications of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) in food processing and water treatment","volume":"12","author":"Prasad","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Eng. Rev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115553","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2020.115553","article-title":"Comparison of UV-LEDs and LPUV on inactivation and subsequent reactivation of waterborne fungal spores","volume":"173","author":"Wan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2011.03.025","article-title":"Comparison of ceramic and polymeric membrane permeability and fouling using surface water","volume":"79","author":"Hofs","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1448","DOI":"10.1007\/s12010-014-1374-4","article-title":"Adsorption Studies of the Gram-Negative Bacteria onto Nanostructured Silicon Carbide","volume":"175","author":"Borkowski","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127493","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2021.127493","article-title":"Photocatalytic membrane reactors for produced water treatment and reuse: Fundamentals, affecting factors, rational design, and evaluation metrics","volume":"424","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Argurio, P., Fontananova, E., Molinar, R., and Drioli, E. (2018). Photocatalytic Membranes in Photocatalytic Membrane Reactors. Processes, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/pr6090162"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2016.05.071","article-title":"Membrane fouling in photocatalytic membrane reactors (PMRs) for water and wastewater treatment: A critical review","volume":"302","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zheng, X., Shen, Z.-P., Shi, L., Cheng, R., and Yuan, D.-H. (2017). Photocatalytic Membrane Reactors (PMRs) in Water Treatment: Configurations and Influencing Factors. Catalysts, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/catal7080224"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.11113\/mjfas.v17n1.2169","article-title":"Review on natural clay ceramic membrane: Fabrication and application in water and wastewater treatment","volume":"17","author":"Azaman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Malays. J. Fundam. Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tomczak, W., and Gryta, M. (2021). Comparison of Polypropylene and Ceramic Microfiltration Membranes Applied for Separation of 1,3-PD Fermentation Broths and Saccharomyces cerevisiae Yeast Suspensions. Membranes, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes11010044"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tomczak, W., Grubecki, I., and Gryta, M. (2021). The Use of NaOH Solutions for Fouling Control in a Membrane Bioreactor: A Feasibility Study. Membranes, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes11110887"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huertas, R.M., Fraga, M.C., Crespo, J.G., and Pereira, V.J. (2019). Solvent-Free Process for the Development of Photocatalytic Membranes. Molecules, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules24244481"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2014.01.047","article-title":"Cu\u2013TiO2 nanorods with enhanced ultraviolet- and visible-light photoactivity for bisphenol A degradation","volume":"277","author":"Chiang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128826","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2021.128826","article-title":"A roadmap for the development and applications of silicon carbide membranes for liquid filtration: Recent advancements, challenges, and perspectives","volume":"414","author":"Eraya","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bernardo, J., S\u00e9rio, J., Oliveira, B., Marques, A.P., Huertas, R., Crespo, J.G., and Pereira, V.J. (2022). Towards a Novel Combined Treatment Approach Using Light-Emitting Diodes and Photocatalytic Ceramic Membranes. Water, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/w14030292"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123986","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matchemphys.2020.123986","article-title":"Microwave-assisted synthesis of various Cu2O\/Cu\/TiO2 and CuxS\/TiO2 composite nanoparticles towards visible-light photocatalytic applications","volume":"259","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fraga, M.C., Huertas, R.M., Crespo, J.G., and Pereira, V.J. (2019). Novel Submerged Photocatalytic Membrane Reactor for Treatment of Olive Mill Wastewaters. Catalysts, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/catal9090769"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2017.02.047","article-title":"Sol-gel membrane modification for enhanced photocatalytic activity","volume":"180","author":"Huertas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-009-0103-y","article-title":"Ultraviolet light-emitting diodes in water disinfection","volume":"16","author":"Vilhunen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.2166\/wh.2010.124","article-title":"Demonstration and evaluation of germicidal UV-LEDs for point-of-use water disinfection","volume":"8","author":"Chatterley","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Water Health"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2013.08.014","article-title":"Application of UV light emitting diodes to batch and flow-through water disinfection systems","volume":"328","author":"Oguma","year":"2013","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2017.09.030","article-title":"Comparison of UV-LED and low pressure UV for water disinfection: Photoreactivation and dark repair of Escherichia coli","volume":"126","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"295","article-title":"The molecular mechanisms of copper and silver ion disinfection of bacteria and viruses","volume":"18","author":"Thurman","year":"1989","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4547","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2013.04.056","article-title":"Inactivation\/reactivation of antibiotic-resistant bacteria by a novel UVA\/LED\/TiO2 system","volume":"47","author":"Xiong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2016.04.033","article-title":"A high-performance doped photocatalysts for inactivation of total coliforms in superficial waters using different sources of radiation","volume":"177","author":"Claro","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fraga, M.C., Sanches, S., Crespo, J.G., and Pereira, V.J. (2017). Assessment of a New Silicon Carbide Tubular Honeycomb Membrane for Treatment of Olive Mill Wastewaters. Membranes, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes7010012"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2019.02.012","article-title":"Heterogeneous photocatalysis using UVA-LEDs for the removal of antibiotics and antibiotic resistant bacteria from urban wastewater treatment plant effluents","volume":"367","author":"Biancullo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-577X(99)00275-X","article-title":"Synthesis of thermally stable, high surface area anatase\u2013alumina mixed oxides","volume":"43","author":"Kumar","year":"2000","journal-title":"Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apcatb.2012.10.013","article-title":"Nitrogen and copper doped solar light active TiO2 photocatalysts for water decontamination","volume":"130","author":"Fisher","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Catal. B Environ."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"36","article-title":"Image Processing with ImageJ","volume":"11","author":"Ram","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biophotonics Int."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/S0376-7388(00)00657-8","article-title":"Membrane characterization using microscopic image analysis","volume":"186","author":"Masselin","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1573","DOI":"10.5740\/jaoacint.11-114","article-title":"Evaluation of Colilert-18 for detection and enumeration of fecal coliform bacteria in wastewater using the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Alternative Test Procedure Protocol","volume":"94","author":"Warden","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. AOAC"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.2175\/106143002X139839","article-title":"Evaluation of Colilert and Enterolert Defined Substrate Methodology for Wastewater Applications","volume":"74","author":"Yakub","year":"2002","journal-title":"Water Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"(2012). Water Quality\u2014Enumeration of Escherichia Coli and Coliform Bacteria\u2014Part 2: Most Probable Number Method (Standard No. ISO 9308-2)."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"(2000). Water Quality\u2014Detection and Enumeration of Intestinal Enterococci\u2014Part 1: Miniaturized Method (Most Probable Number) for Surface and Waste Water (Standard No. ISO 7899-1:2000\/COR 1)."}],"container-title":["Catalysts"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4344\/12\/7\/680\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:37:38Z","timestamp":1760139458000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4344\/12\/7\/680"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,22]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7]]}},"alternative-id":["catal12070680"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/catal12070680","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4344"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2073-4344"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,22]]}}}