{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,5]],"date-time":"2026-05-05T07:36:29Z","timestamp":1777966589311,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,27]],"date-time":"2023-01-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1674777600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Children"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The human upper respiratory tract comprises the nasal cavity, pharynx and larynx regions and offers distinct microbial communities. However, an imbalance and alterations in the nasal mucosa microbiome enhance the risk of chronic respiratory conditions in patients with allergic respiratory diseases. This is particularly important in children and adolescents once allergic rhinitis (AR) is an inflammatory disorder of the nasal mucosa, often associated with an increase in pulmonary allergic inflammation. Therefore, this systematic review aimed to collect scientific data published concerning the microbial community alterations in nasal mucosa of children and adolescents suffering from AR or in association with adenotonsillar hypertrophy (AH) and allergic rhinoconjunctivitis (ARC). The current study was performed using the guidelines of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). Publications related to microbiome alterations in the nasal mucosa in pediatric age, studies including next-generation sequencing platforms, and studies exclusively written in the English language were some of the inclusion criteria. In total, five articles were included. Despite the scarcity of the published data in this research field and the lack of prospective studies, the genera Acinetobacter, Corynebacterium, Dolosigranulum, Haemophilus, Moraxella, Staphylococcus and Streptococcus dominate the nares and nasopharyngeal microbiome of the pediatric population regardless of their age. However, an imbalance in the resident bacterial community in the nasal mucosa was observed. The genera Acinetobacter, and Pseudomonas were more abundant in the nasal cavity of AR and AH children, while Streptococcus and Moraxella were predominant in the hypopharyngeal region of AR infants. An abundance of Staphylococcus spp. was also reported in the anterior nares and hypopharyngeal region of children and adolescents suffering from AR passive smoke exposure and ARC. These records suggest that different nasal structures, ageing, smoke exposure and the presence of other chronic disorders shape the nasal mucosa microbiome. Therefore, the establishment of adequate criteria for sampling would be established for a deeper understanding and a trustworthy comparison of the microbiome alterations in pediatric age.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/children10020226","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,30]],"date-time":"2023-01-30T03:31:11Z","timestamp":1675049471000},"page":"226","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Microbiome in Nasal Mucosa of Children and Adolescents with Allergic Rhinitis: A Systematic Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Andr\u00e9 Costa","family":"Azevedo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Unidade Local de Sa\u00fade do Alto Minho, 4904-858 Viana do Castelo, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6463-9757","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sandra","family":"Hil\u00e1rio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CESAM, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2295-3374","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Micael F. M.","family":"Gon\u00e7alves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Microbiology, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e32","DOI":"10.5415\/apallergy.2022.12.e32","article-title":"Association of upper airway bacterial microbiota and asthma: Systematic review","volume":"12","author":"Losol","year":"2022","journal-title":"Asia Pac. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3661","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00558-09","article-title":"Antibiotic treatment of Clostridium difficile carrier mice triggers a supershedder state, spore-mediated transmission, and severe disease in immunocompromised hosts","volume":"77","author":"Lawley","year":"2009","journal-title":"Infect. 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