{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,25]],"date-time":"2026-04-25T14:25:50Z","timestamp":1777127150469,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,6]],"date-time":"2025-09-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757116800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["CivilEng"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The growing application of 3D concrete printing (3DCP) in construction has raised important questions regarding its long-term durability under freeze\u2013thaw (F\u2013T) exposure, particularly in cold climates. This review paper presents a comprehensive examination of recent research focused on the F\u2013T performance of 3D-printed concrete (3DPC). Key material and process parameters influencing durability, such as print orientation, admixtures, and layer bonding, are critically evaluated. Experimental findings from mechanical, microstructural, and imaging studies are discussed, highlighting anisotropic vulnerabilities and the potential of advanced additives like nanofillers and air-entraining agents. Notably, air-entraining agents (AEA) reduced the compressive strength loss by 1.4\u20135.3% after exposure to F\u2013T cycles compared to control samples. Additionally, horizontally cored specimens with AEA incorporated into their mixture design showed a 15% higher dynamic modulus after up to 300 F\u2013T cycles. Furthermore, optimized printing parameters, such as reduced nozzle standoff distance and minimized printing time gap, reduced surface scaling by over 50%. The addition of a nanofiller such as nano zinc oxide in 3DPC can result in compressive strength retention rates exceeding 95% even after aggressive F\u2013T cycling. The lack of standard testing protocols and the geometry dependence of degradation are emphasized as key research gaps. This review provides insights into optimizing mix designs and printing strategies to improve the F\u2013T resistance of 3DPC, aiming to support its reliable implementation in cold-region infrastructure.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/civileng6030047","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,8]],"date-time":"2025-09-08T11:51:12Z","timestamp":1757332272000},"page":"47","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Freeze\u2013Thaw Durability of 3D Printed Concrete: A Comprehensive Review of Mechanisms, Materials, and Testing Strategies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"6","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9006-4427","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Moein","family":"Mousavi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Glenn Department of Civil Engineering, School of Civil Engineering and Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA"}]},{"given":"Prasad","family":"Rangaraju","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Glenn Department of Civil Engineering, School of Civil Engineering and Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Solass, J., Schapfel, S., and Stolz, A. 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