{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,16]],"date-time":"2026-03-16T12:06:14Z","timestamp":1773662774127,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,16]],"date-time":"2026-03-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773619200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Higher Education Innovation Funding (HEIF), Faculty of Health, Innovation, Technology and Science, Liverpool John Moores University"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006041","name":"Innovate UK Net Zero Living Programme","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["J272019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["J272019"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006041","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["CivilEng"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The UK faces an urgent challenge to simultaneously accelerate housing delivery and reduce whole-life carbon emissions, yet robust empirical evidence on the carbon performance of modular steel housing remains limited. This study aims to quantify the carbon impacts of a modular light-gauge steel frame social housing dwelling in the UK and to benchmark its performance against contemporary low-carbon construction typologies. A cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment was conducted using primary project data from a real modular housing development, with embodied carbon modelled in One Click LCA and operational energy assessed through SAP 10.2-verified datasets. The results indicate a total whole-life carbon footprint of 91.3 tCO2e over a 50-year period, with embodied emissions (A1\u2013A3) accounting for 38.2% and operational energy and water use contributing 48.1%. The normalised embodied carbon intensity of 366 kgCO2e\/m2 (A1\u2013A5) is comparable to recent high-performing cross-laminated timber buildings, demonstrating that optimised modular steel systems can allow for low-carbon outcomes typically associated with bio-based construction. Sensitivity analysis shows that low-carbon foundation concrete, bio-based insulation, and steel optimisation can reduce upfront emissions by approximately 8\u201310%. Dynamic energy simulations were also used to assess how different design choices influence operational carbon emissions. This study provides transparent, real-project evidence of the whole-life carbon performance of UK modular light-gauge steel frame housing and identifies practical design strategies for further decarbonisation. The findings support informed decision-making for policymakers, designers, and housing providers seeking scalable, low-carbon residential solutions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/civileng7010018","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,16]],"date-time":"2026-03-16T10:10:43Z","timestamp":1773655843000},"page":"18","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Life Cycle Assessment of Modular Steel Construction for Sustainable Social Housing in the UK"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"7","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-6931-3832","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Deelaram","family":"Nangir","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"BEST Research Institute, School of Engineering and Built Environment, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2494-405X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michaela","family":"Gkantou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"BEST Research Institute, School of Engineering and Built Environment, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6292-2073","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana","family":"Bras","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"BEST Research Institute, School of Engineering and Built Environment, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK"}]},{"given":"Georgios","family":"Nikitas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"BEST Research Institute, School of Engineering and Built Environment, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6892-7919","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria","family":"Ferentinou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"BEST Research Institute, School of Engineering and Built Environment, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK"}]},{"given":"Mike","family":"Riley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"BEST Research Institute, School of Engineering and Built Environment, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK"}]},{"given":"Paul","family":"Clark","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Starship Hub, Hythe, Wirral Waters, Wirral CH41 1AA, UK"}]},{"given":"Simon","family":"Humphreys","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Starship Hub, Hythe, Wirral Waters, Wirral CH41 1AA, UK"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"The National Housing Federation (NHF) (2025, September 30). 1 in 7 People in England Directly Hit by the Housing Crisis. 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