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However, accurate estimation of ETo is challenging when meteorological data are insufficient or of low quality. Furthermore, in climate change studies where large amounts of data need to be managed, it is important to minimize the complexity of the ETo calculation. This study presents a comprehensive approach that integrates data quality analysis with two calibration methods\u2014annual and cluster-based\u2014to improve ETo estimates based solely on temperature data from a set of weather stations (WS). First, the quality and integrity of meteorological data from several WS were analyzed to reduce uncertainty. Second, the Hargreaves\u2013Samani equation (HS) is site calibrated using two approaches: (a) annual calibration, where the radiation coefficient (kRs) is adjusted using a data set covering the entire year; (b) cluster-based calibration, where independent radiation coefficients are adjusted for clusters of years and months. The methodology was evaluated for the Alentejo region in Southern Portugal, using data from 1996 to 2023. When using the original HS equation with a kRs = 0.17 \u00b0C\u22120.5, ETo was estimated with errors from 14.9% to 22.9% with bias ranging from \u22129.0% to 8.8%. The annual calibration resulted in kRs values between 0.157 and 0.165 \u00b0C\u22120.5 with estimation errors between 13.3% and 20.6% and bias ranging from \u22121.5% to 1.0% across the different weather stations. Calibration based on clusters of months and years produced unclear results. Dry season months showed better results using cluster-based calibration, while wet season months performed poorly regardless of the calibration approach. The results highlight the importance of meteorological data quality and site-specific calibration for refining temperature-based ETo estimation methods, and for the region studied, the gains do not justify the increased complexity of the cluster-based approach.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cli12120205","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,2]],"date-time":"2024-12-02T09:00:10Z","timestamp":1733130010000},"page":"205","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Methodology for Obtaining ETo Data for Climate Change Studies: Quality Analysis and Calibration of the Hargreaves\u2013Samani Equation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4778-4047","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ant\u00f3nia","family":"Ferreira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"LEAF-Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food-Research Center, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, School of Agriculture, University of Lisbon, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2186-5172","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria do Ros\u00e1rio","family":"Cameira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LEAF-Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food-Research Center, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, School of Agriculture, University of Lisbon, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"Associated Laboratory TERRA, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, School of Agriculture, University of Lisbon, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1782-2732","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Rolim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LEAF-Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food-Research Center, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, School of Agriculture, University of Lisbon, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"Associated Laboratory TERRA, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, School of Agriculture, University of Lisbon, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisbon, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1007\/s10666-020-09724-8","article-title":"Climate Change and Irrigation Water: Should the North\/South Hierarchy of Impacts on Agricultural Systems Be Reconsidered?","volume":"26","author":"Barberis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. 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