{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,14]],"date-time":"2026-03-14T01:07:31Z","timestamp":1773450451966,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,20]],"date-time":"2025-11-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763596800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia","award":["UI\/BD\/152207\/2021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UI\/BD\/152207\/2021"]}]},{"name":"Research Unit","award":["UIDB\/00295\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/00295\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Climate"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study addressed rainfall patterns and trends on S\u00e3o Miguel Island (Azores, Portugal). Homogeneous rainfall areas were identified using Ward\u2019s hierarchical clustering method. The analysis was performed using monthly rainfall data from 21 rainfall stations, considering the climatological periods of 1978\/79\u20132019\/20 (full dataset), 1978\/79\u20132009\/10 (oldest sub-dataset), and 2010\/11\u20132019\/20 (latest sub-dataset). Four rainfall clusters were identified, with Mean Annual Rainfall (MAP) ranging from 835.8 mm in low-altitude areas to 2925.5 mm in regions with higher elevation. These clusters showed consistent patterns for the analysed periods, although some changes in their composition were observed when considering the oldest and latest sub-datasets. The correlation between altitude and rainfall was strong (R2 up to 0.83), indicating an increase of approximately 196 mm of MAP per 100 m elevation gain. Moreover, no notable variation was observed between the island\u2019s windward and leeward slopes. Rainfall trend analysis using Mann\u2013Kendall and Sen\u2019s slope tests revealed significant declines in both annual and seasonal rainfall in recent years. The strongest decreases occurred in autumn and winter, with trends as steep as \u221231.6 mm\/year and \u221212.1 mm\/year in autumn (both at the Fogo III station). Between the oldest and most recent periods, rainfall reductions reached up to 41% in autumn (P10) and 55% in winter (P10), particularly affecting clusters at lower and mid-altitudes. Although certain stations showed significant declines, the overall trend hints at a potential deviation from projections of global climate change models, as well as from trends identified in previous long-term rainfall studies. The predominantly positive phase of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) observed in recent years has likely contributed, at least partially, to the decrease in the rainfall trend. Overall, the results provide a refined spatial and temporal characterisation of rainfall across S\u00e3o Miguel Island, improving the understanding of local climatic variability and offering valuable insights for regional water management and climate adaptation strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cli13110238","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,21]],"date-time":"2025-11-21T08:59:46Z","timestamp":1763715586000},"page":"238","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Rainfall Patterns and Trends on S\u00e3o Miguel Island (Azores, Portugal): A Hierarchical Clustering and Trend Analysis Approach"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7031-963X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rui Fagundes","family":"Silva","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Volcanology and Risk Assessment, University of the Azores, Rua M\u00e3e de Deus, 9500-321 Ponta Delgada, Portugal"},{"name":"Centre for Information and Seismovolcanic Surveillance of the Azores, University of the Azores, Rua M\u00e3e de Deus, 9500-321 Ponta Delgada, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3633-7110","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rui","family":"Marques","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Volcanology and Risk Assessment, University of the Azores, Rua M\u00e3e de Deus, 9500-321 Ponta Delgada, Portugal"},{"name":"Centre for Information and Seismovolcanic Surveillance of the Azores, University of the Azores, Rua M\u00e3e de Deus, 9500-321 Ponta Delgada, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3953-673X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Lu\u00eds","family":"Z\u00eazere","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre of Geographical Studies, IGOT, University of Lisbon, Rua Branca Edm\u00e9e Marques, 1600-276 Lisboa, Portugal"},{"name":"Associate Laboratory TERRA, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, University of Lisbon, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7272-3089","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcelo","family":"Fragoso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre of Geographical Studies, IGOT, University of Lisbon, Rua Branca Edm\u00e9e Marques, 1600-276 Lisboa, Portugal"},{"name":"Associate Laboratory TERRA, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, University of Lisbon, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.3354\/cr019193","article-title":"Observed coherent changes in climatic extremes during the second half of twentieth century","volume":"19","author":"Frich","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clim. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2006.10.011","article-title":"Stream flow in Minnesota: Indicator of climate change","volume":"334","author":"Novotny","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"2979","article-title":"Analysis of spatio-temporal changes in annual and seasonal rainfall variability in South America-Chile and related ocean\u2013atmosphere circulation patterns","volume":"36","author":"Diaz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2005.09.009","article-title":"Identification of homogeneous regions for regional frequency analysis using the self-organizing map","volume":"324","author":"Lin","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2309","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(1993)006<2309:TUOLMI>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The use of L-moments in the determination of regional rainfall climates","volume":"6","author":"Guttman","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2010.10.009","article-title":"Statistically-based regionalization of rainfall climates of Iran","volume":"75","author":"Modarres","year":"2011","journal-title":"Glob. Planet. Change"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1050","DOI":"10.1080\/02626667.2017.1303705","article-title":"Long-term rainfall trends and change points in hot and cold arid regions of India","volume":"62","author":"Machiwal","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hydrol. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2333","DOI":"10.1007\/s11269-017-1653-2","article-title":"Obtaining homogeneous regions by determining the generalized fractal dimensions of validated daily rainfall data sets","volume":"31","year":"2017","journal-title":"Water Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1002\/met.137","article-title":"A comparison of the rainfall patterns between stations on the East and the West coasts of Peninsular Malaysia using the smoothing model of rainfall amounts","volume":"16","author":"Suhaila","year":"2009","journal-title":"Meteorol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1080\/02626660109492848","article-title":"Monthly spatial rainfall correlation functions and interpretations for Turkey","volume":"46","author":"Habib","year":"2001","journal-title":"Hydrol. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-014-1174-3","article-title":"Geographical factors affecting variability of rainfall regime in Iran","volume":"120","author":"Sabziparvar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1199","DOI":"10.1623\/hysj.52.6.1199","article-title":"Regionalizing fine time-scale rainfall affected by topography in semi-arid Tunisia","volume":"52","author":"Jebari","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hydrol. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2951","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.11238","article-title":"The implications of regional variations in rainfall for reconstructing rainfall patterns using tree rings","volume":"31","author":"Haines","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1007\/s11269-016-1532-2","article-title":"A hybrid statistical downscaling method based on the classification of rainfall patterns","volume":"31","author":"Lin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Water Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-017-6814-3","article-title":"Comparison of ordinary and Bayesian kriging techniques in depicting rainfall variability in arid and semi-arid regions of north-west India","volume":"76","author":"Gupta","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"985","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.3370150905","article-title":"Classification of Tropical Rainfall Stations: A Comparison of Clustering Techniques","volume":"15","author":"Jackson","year":"1995","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1963.10500845","article-title":"Hierarchical Grouping to Optimize an Objective Function","volume":"58","author":"Ward","year":"1963","journal-title":"J. Am. Stat. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Masoodian, S.A. (1998). An Analysis of Tempo-Spatial Variation or Rainfall in Iran. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Isfahan]."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1007\/s007040050060","article-title":"An Analysis of Regional and Intra-annual Rainfall Variability over Iran using Multivariate Statistical Methods","volume":"61","author":"Domroes","year":"1998","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.910","article-title":"Redefining the climate zones of Turkey using cluster analysis","volume":"23","author":"Unal","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1211","DOI":"10.1590\/S0100-204X2007000900001","article-title":"Simula\u00e7\u00e3o Estoc\u00e1stica da Radia\u00e7\u00e3o Fotossinteticamente Ativa e da Temperatura do Ar por Diferentes M\u00e9todos","volume":"42","author":"Martin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pesqui. Agropecu. Bras."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3546","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.3926","article-title":"Cluster analysis applied to the spatial and temporal variability of monthly rainfall in Alagoas state, Northeast of Brazil","volume":"34","author":"Lyra","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2005.09.023","article-title":"Observed trends of annual maximum water level and streamflow during past 130 years in the Yangtze River basin, China","volume":"324","author":"Zhang","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2007.06.034","article-title":"Historical temporal trends of hydro-climatic variables and runoff response to climate variability and their relevance in water resource management in the Hanjiang basin","volume":"344","author":"Chen","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1455","DOI":"10.2166\/nh.2020.041","article-title":"Comparison of parametric and non-parametric methods for trend identification in groundwater levels in Sirjan plain aquifer, Iran","volume":"51","author":"Mirabbasi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hydrol. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2012.10.034","article-title":"Review of trend detection methods and their application to detect temperature changes in India","volume":"476","author":"Sonali","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Kendall, S. (1976). Time Series, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.2307\/1907187","article-title":"Non-Parametric Test Against Trend","volume":"13","author":"Mann","year":"1945","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"386","article-title":"A rank-invariant method of linear and polynomial regression analysis. I, II, III","volume":"53","author":"Theil","year":"1950","journal-title":"Ned. Akad. Wet. Proc. Ser. A"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1379","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1968.10480934","article-title":"Estimates of the regression coefficient based on Kendall\u2019s tau","volume":"63","author":"Sen","year":"1968","journal-title":"J. Am. Stat. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.56431\/p-6p2zo2","article-title":"Temporal and Spatial Dynamics of Rainfall in Satluj River Basin, Himachal Pradesh, India","volume":"54","author":"Kumar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. Lett. Chem. Phys. Astron."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.5194\/asr-6-129-2011","article-title":"Data-driven exploration of orographic enhancement of rainfall","volume":"6","author":"Foresti","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(2001)129<1117:NSOAAC>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Numerical Simulations of Airflow and Cloud Distributions over the Windward Side of the Island of Hawaii. Part I: The Effects of Trade Wind Inversion","volume":"129","author":"Chen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-012-0648-4","article-title":"Influence of Azores High pressure on Middle Eastern rainfall","volume":"111","author":"Iqbal","year":"2012","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"992","DOI":"10.4236\/ijg.2012.325099","article-title":"Impact of North-South Shift of Azores High on Summer Rainfall over North West Europe","volume":"3","author":"Rashid","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gsf.2014.02.009","article-title":"Effect of climate change on seasonal monsoon in Asia and its impact on the variability of monsoon rainfall in Southeast Asia","volume":"6","author":"Loo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geosci. Front."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"473","article-title":"Climate change scenarios in the Azores and Madeira islands","volume":"16","author":"Santos","year":"2004","journal-title":"World Resour. Rev."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2429","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-10-2429-2010","article-title":"Investigating Annual and Monthly Trends in Rainfall Structure: An Overview Across Portugal","volume":"10","author":"Carvalho","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.3710","article-title":"An analysis of the climate of Macaronesia, 1865\u20132012","volume":"34","author":"Cropper","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4439","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.4642","article-title":"New Azores archipelago daily rainfall dataset and its links with large-scale modes of climate variability","volume":"36","author":"Kutiel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.6879","article-title":"Rainfall patterns and critical values associated with landslides in Povoa\u00e7\u00e3o County (S\u00e3o Miguel Island, Azores): Relationships with the North Atlantic Oscillation","volume":"22","author":"Marques","year":"2008","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Queiroz, G. (1997). Vulc\u00e3o das Sete Cidades (S. Miguel, A\u00e7ores)\u2014Hist\u00f3ria Eruptiva e Avalia\u00e7\u00e3o do Hazard. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of the Azores]."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"87","article-title":"Eruptive History and Evolution of Sete Cidades Volcano, S\u00e3o Miguel Island, Azores","volume":"Volume 44","author":"Gaspar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Volcanic Geology of S\u00e3o Miguel Island (Azores Archipelago)"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Wallenstein, N. (1999). Estudo da Hist\u00f3ria Recente e do Comportamento Eruptivo do Vulc\u00e3o do Fogo (S. Miguel, A\u00e7ores). Avalia\u00e7\u00e3o preliminar do Hazard. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of the Azores]."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"105","article-title":"Eruptive History of Fogo Volcano, S\u00e3o Miguel, Azores","volume":"Volume 44","author":"Gaspar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Volcanic Geology of S\u00e3o Miguel Island (Azores Archipelago)"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0377-0273(99)00064-5","article-title":"Volcanic geology of Furnas Volcano, S\u00e3o Miguel, Azores","volume":"92","author":"Guest","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"125","article-title":"The volcanic history of Furnas volcano, S\u00e3o Miguel, Azores","volume":"Volume 44","author":"Gaspar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Volcanic Geology of S\u00e3o Miguel Island (Azores Archipelago)"},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Ferreira, T. (2000). Caracteriza\u00e7\u00e3o da Actividade Vulc\u00e2nica da ilha de S. Miguel (A\u00e7ores): Vulcanismo Bas\u00e1ltico Recente e Zonas de Desgaseifica\u00e7\u00e3o. Avalia\u00e7\u00e3o de Riscos. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of the Azores]."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"135","article-title":"Distribution and significance of basaltic eruptive centres: S\u00e3o Miguel, Azores","volume":"Volume 44","author":"Gaspar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Volcanic Geology of S\u00e3o Miguel Island (Azores Archipelago)"},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"271","article-title":"A quantitative study of five thousand years of volcanism on S. Miguel, Azores","volume":"228","author":"Booth","year":"1978","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"147","article-title":"The oldest volcanic complexes of S\u00e3o Miguel, Azores: Nordeste and Povoa\u00e7\u00e3o","volume":"Volume 44","author":"Gaspar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Volcanic Geology of S\u00e3o Miguel Island (Azores Archipelago)"},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"309","article-title":"Condicionantes Din\u00e2micas do Clima no Arquip\u00e9lago dos A\u00e7ores: Elementos para o Seu Estudo","volume":"9","author":"Azevedo","year":"2001","journal-title":"A\u00e7oreana"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hurrell, J.W., Kushnir, Y., Ottersen, G., and Visbeck, M. (2003). An Overview of the North Atlantic Oscillation. The North Atlantic Oscillation: Climatic Significance and Environmental Impact, American Geophysical Union.","DOI":"10.1029\/GM134"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carvalho, F.S., Meirelles, M.G., Henriques, D.V., Navarro, P.V., and Vasconcelos, H.C. (2022). Climate Change and the Increase of Extreme Events in Azores. Handbook of Human and Planetary Health, Springer. Climate Change Management.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-09879-6_20"},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Chazarra, A., Bacel\u00f3, A.M., Pires, V., Cunha, S., Silva, A., Marques, J., Carvalho, F., Mendes, M., Neto, J., and Mendes, L. (2011). Climate Atlas of the Archipelagos of the Canary Islands, Madeira and the Azores, Department of the State Meteorological Agency of Spain and Department of Meteorology and Climatology of the Institute of Meteorology."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Azevedo, E.B. (1996). Modela\u00e7\u00e3o do Clima Insular \u00e0 Escala Local\u2014Modelo CIELO aplicado \u00e0 Ilha Terceira. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of the Azores]."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Fernandes, J. (2004). Caracteriza\u00e7\u00e3o Clim\u00e1tica das ilhas de S\u00e3o Miguel e Santa Maria com Base no Modelo CIELO, University of the Azores. Internship Report."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-3774(99)00012-8","article-title":"Modeling the Local Climate in Island Environments: Water Balance Applications","volume":"40","author":"Azevedo","year":"1999","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Brito, R.S. (2004). S\u00e3o Miguel\u2014A Ilha Verde. Estudo Geogr\u00e1fico (1950\u20132000), Instituto de Alta Cultura, Centro de Estudos Geogr\u00e1ficos. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Rodrigues, R. (1995). Hidrologia de Ilhas Vulc\u00e2nicas, Laborat\u00f3rio Nacional de Engenharia Civil. Disserta\u00e7\u00e3o para Obten\u00e7\u00e3o do grau de Especialista."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Rodrigues, R. (1992). Avalia\u00e7\u00e3o das Disponibilidades H\u00eddricas da Ilha de S\u00e3o Miguel (A\u00e7ores), Laborat\u00f3rio Nacional de Engenharia Civil. Rel. 217\/92\u2014NHHF."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.2307\/2347973","article-title":"An extension of Shapiro and Wilk\u2019s W test for normality to large samples","volume":"31","author":"Royston","year":"1982","journal-title":"Appl. Stat."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"213","article-title":"Kolmogorov\u2013Smirnov type test for independence and multivariate samples","volume":"26","author":"Deheuvels","year":"1981","journal-title":"Rev. Roum. Math. Pure. Appl."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0088(199701)17:1<25::AID-JOC103>3.0.CO;2-J","article-title":"Homogenization of Swedish temperature data. Part I: Homogeneity test for linear trends","volume":"17","author":"Alexandersson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-1694(82)90066-X","article-title":"Some methods for testing the homogeneity of rainfall records","volume":"58","author":"Buishand","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.2307\/2346729","article-title":"A non-parametric approach to the change-point problem","volume":"28","author":"Pettitt","year":"1979","journal-title":"Appl. Stat."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1214\/aoms\/1177731677","article-title":"Distribution of the ratio of the mean square successive difference to the variance","volume":"12","year":"1941","journal-title":"Ann. Math. Stat."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.906","article-title":"Homogeneity of 20th century European daily temperature and rainfall series","volume":"23","author":"Wijngaard","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Everitt, B.S., and Dunn, G. (1991). Applied Multivariate Analysis, Edward Arnold."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1038\/s43247-025-02624-3","article-title":"Regional-Scale Intelligent Optimization and Topography Impact in Restoring Global Rainfall Data Gaps","volume":"6","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Commun. Earth Environ."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2005.01.008","article-title":"Quantifying Risk for Water Harvesting under Semi-Arid Conditions: Part I. Rainfall Intensity Generation","volume":"76","author":"Tsubo","year":"2005","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2671","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-14-2671-2010","article-title":"Investigating Changes over Time of Annual Rainfall in Zimbabwe","volume":"14","author":"Mazvimavi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"World Meteorological Organization (2018). Guide to Climatological Practices, WMO. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1007\/s00703-017-0564-3","article-title":"Trends analysis of rainfall and rainfall extremes in Sarawak, Malaysia using modified Mann\u2013Kendall test","volume":"131","author":"Shahid","year":"2019","journal-title":"Meteorol. Atmos. Phys."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Wilks, D.S. (2020). Statistical Methods in the Atmospheric Sciences, Academic Press. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8041","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-22-0954.1","article-title":"Good practices and common pitfalls in climate time series changepoint techniques: A review","volume":"36","author":"Lund","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejrh.2015.01.001","article-title":"The biggest drought events in Europe from 1950 to 2012","volume":"3","author":"Spinoni","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190009","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4912478","article-title":"A Preliminary Analysis of Rainfall Spatial Distribution at Catchment Scale","volume":"1648","author":"Rianna","year":"2015","journal-title":"AIP Conf. Proc."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mahindawansha, A., Jost, M., and Gassmann, M. (2022). Spatial and Temporal Variations of Stable Isotopes in Rainfall in the Mountainous Region, North Hesse. Water, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/w14233910"},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"Programa Regional para as Altera\u00e7\u00f5es Clim\u00e1ticas (PRAC) (2019). Decreto Legislativo Regional n.\u00ba 30\/2019\/A, Assembleia Legislativa da Regi\u00e3o Aut\u00f3noma dos A\u00e7ores. Di\u00e1rio da Rep\u00fablica n.\u00ba 229\/2019, S\u00e9rie I."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6465","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-16-0529.1","article-title":"Responses of the Summertime Subtropical Anticyclones to Global Warming","volume":"30","author":"He","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1038\/s41561-022-00971-w","article-title":"Twentieth-Century Azores High Expansion Unprecedented in the Past 1200 Years","volume":"15","author":"Ummenhofer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106695","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2023.106695","article-title":"Rainfall and Drought Trends (1952\u20132021) in a Key Hydrological Recharge Area of the Eastern Iberian Peninsula","volume":"286","author":"Estrela","year":"2023","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodrigo, F.S. (2021). Exploring Combined Influences of Seasonal East Atlantic (EA) and North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) on the Temperature-Precipitation Relationship in the Iberian Peninsula. Geosciences, 11.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202103.0781.v1"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.2158","article-title":"Impacts of the EA and SCA patterns on the European twentieth century NAO\u2013winter climate relationship","volume":"140","author":"McDermott","year":"2014","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3192","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(2001)014<3192:SAASM>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Subtropical Anticyclones and Summer Monsoons","volume":"14","author":"Rodwell","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"Lopes, S. (2015). Clima e Ordenamento do Territ\u00f3rio no Funchal. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Lisbon]."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100487","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cliser.2024.100487","article-title":"The Digital Climate Atlas of the Canary Islands: A Tool to Improve Knowledge of Climate and Temperature and Rainfall Trends in the Atlantic Islands","volume":"34","author":"Suarez","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clim. Serv."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.5194\/npg-20-1079-2013","article-title":"Scaling Properties of Rainfall and Desert Dust in the Canary Islands","volume":"20","author":"Cianca","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nonlinear Process. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1663","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-020-05554-2","article-title":"Analysis of Rain-Shadows in the Ethiopian Mountains Using Climatological Model Data","volume":"56","author":"Nyssen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clim. Dyn."}],"container-title":["Climate"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2225-1154\/13\/11\/238\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,22]],"date-time":"2025-11-22T05:26:52Z","timestamp":1763789212000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2225-1154\/13\/11\/238"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,20]]},"references-count":90,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]}},"alternative-id":["cli13110238"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cli13110238","relation":{},"ISSN":["2225-1154"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2225-1154","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,20]]}}}