{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:05:28Z","timestamp":1760144728382,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,17]],"date-time":"2024-05-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1715904000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia (FCT)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDB\/00151\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/00151\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Designs"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Internal combustion engines have been a major contributor to air pollution. Replacing these engines with electric propulsion systems presents significant challenges due to different countries\u2019 needs and limitations. An active, purely mechanical solution to the problem of irregular torque production in an alternative internal combustion engine is proposed. This solution uses an actuator built on a camshaft and a spring, which stores and returns energy during the engine operating cycle, allowing torque production to be normalized, avoiding heavy flywheels. Designed for control throughout the engine\u2019s duty cycle, this system incorporates a cam profile and a spring mechanism. The spring captures energy during the expansion stroke, which is then released to the engine during the intake and compression strokes. Simple, lightweight, and efficient, this system ensures smoother and more consistent engine operations. It presents a viable alternative to the heavy and problematic dual-mass flywheels that were introduced in the 1980s and are still in use. This innovative approach could significantly enhance the performance and reliability of alternative internal combustion engines without notable energy losses.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/designs8030047","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,17]],"date-time":"2024-05-17T12:02:23Z","timestamp":1715947343000},"page":"47","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["An Innovative Mechanical Approach to Mitigating Torque Fluctuations in IC Engines during Idle Operation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6165-5348","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel Silva","family":"Cardoso","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"C-MAST\u2014Center for Mechanical and Aerospace Science and Technologies, Cal\u00e7ada Fonte do Lameiro, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4737-0274","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paulo Oliveira","family":"Fael","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"C-MAST\u2014Center for Mechanical and Aerospace Science and Technologies, Cal\u00e7ada Fonte do Lameiro, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1691-1709","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro Dinis","family":"Gaspar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"C-MAST\u2014Center for Mechanical and Aerospace Science and Technologies, Cal\u00e7ada Fonte do Lameiro, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Ant\u00f3nio","family":"Esp\u00edrito-Santo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IT\u2014Institute of Telecommunications, Cal\u00e7ada Fonte do Lameiro, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1493","DOI":"10.1007\/s12206-015-0322-8","article-title":"A mathematical model to investigate the effects of misfire and cyclic variations on crankshaft speed fluctuations in internal combustion engines","volume":"29","author":"Solmaz","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Mech. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1177\/09544070211026290","article-title":"Modeling and validation of crankshaft speed fluctuations of a single-cylinder four-stroke diesel engine","volume":"236","author":"Babagiray","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part D J. Automob. Eng."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egyr.2020.10.031","article-title":"Instantaneous angular velocity and torque on Otto single-cylinder engine: A theoretical and experimental analysis","volume":"6","author":"Cardoso","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energy Rep."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1115\/1.1365122","article-title":"A nonlinear, transient, single-cylinder diesel engine simulation for predictions of instantaneous engine speed and torque","volume":"123","author":"Filipi","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2012.01.020","article-title":"Effect of instantaneous rotational speed on the analysis of measured diesel engine cylinder pressure data","volume":"60","author":"Antonopoulos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"496","article-title":"Review on Performance of Dual Mass Flywheel over Conventional Flywheel","volume":"71","author":"Munde","year":"2022","journal-title":"Math. Stat. Eng. Appl."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"759","article-title":"A Review Paper on Vibration Analysis of DI Engine","volume":"4","author":"Dawange","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Sci. Res. IJSR"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cardoso, D., Nunes, D., Faria, J., Fael, P., and Gaspar, P.D. (2023). Intelligent Micro-Cogeneration Systems for Residential Grids: A Sustainable Solution for Efficient Energy Management. Energies, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/en16135215"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"1","article-title":"Analyzing the Usage of Wankel Engine Technology in Future Automotive Powertrains","volume":"5","author":"Mittal","year":"2023","journal-title":"SAE Int. J. Sustain. Transp. Energy Environ. Policy"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schaper, U., Sawodny, O., Mahl, T., and Blessing, U. (2009, January 10\u201312). Modeling and torque estimation of an automotive Dual Mass Flywheel. Proceedings of the 2009 American Control Conference, St. Louis, MO, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ACC.2009.5160136"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2971","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2011.2159255","article-title":"Active torque cancellation for transmitted vibration reduction of low cylinder count engines","volume":"60","author":"Ayana","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"071013","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4049620","article-title":"Model-Based Unified Framework for Detection and Mitigation of Cyclic Torque Imbalance in a Gasoline Engine","volume":"143","author":"Anjum","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104634","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conengprac.2020.104634","article-title":"Modelling and Active Damping of Engine Torque Ripple in a Power-Split Hybrid Electric Vehicle","volume":"104","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Control Eng. Pract."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mechmachtheory.2016.10.023","article-title":"A balancing cam mechanism for minimizing the torque fluctuation of engine camshafts","volume":"108","author":"Lin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mech. Mach. Theory"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mechrescom.2009.11.007","article-title":"Simultaneous inertia force\/moment balancing and torque compensation of slider-crank mechanisms","volume":"37","author":"Arakelian","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mech. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Cardoso, D.S., and Fael, P.O. (2019). Lecture Notes in Engineering and Computer Science, Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2018, London, UK, 4\u20136 July 2018, Springer."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1840","DOI":"10.1177\/0954407015579296","article-title":"Research on the torque transmissibility of the passive torsional vibration isolator in an automotive clutch damper","volume":"229","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part D J. Automob. Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Vehicular Technology Society, and Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (2015, January 19\u201322). Active Torque Ripple Damping in Direct Drive Range Extender Applications: A Comparison and an Original Proposal. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference (VPPC), Montreal, QC, Canada."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jianguo, B., Xudong, L., Ming, Z., and Kaixiong, L. (2018, January 12\u201314). Design and Optimization for the Main Dimension of Flywheel Motor Based on Torque Density. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE 3rd Advanced Information Technology, Electronic and Automation Control Conference (IAEAC), Chongqing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/IAEAC.2018.8577753"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Galvagno, E., Velardocchia, M., Vigliani, A., and Tota, A. (2015, January 21\u201323). Experimental Analysis and Model Validation of a Dual Mass Flywheel for Passenger Cars. Proceedings of the SAE 2015 World Congress & Exhibition, Detroit, MI, USA.","DOI":"10.4271\/2015-01-1121"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egyr.2020.01.001","article-title":"Modeling and simulation of a passive variable inertia flywheel for diesel generator","volume":"6","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energy Rep."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.4271\/2009-01-1053","article-title":"Challenges for Increased Efficiency through Gasoline Engine Downsizing","volume":"2","author":"Fraser","year":"2009","journal-title":"SAE Int. J. Engines"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2013.08.097","article-title":"Hybrid electric vehicles and their challenges: A review","volume":"29","author":"Hannan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egyr.2019.08.077","article-title":"A review of micro and mild hybrid systems","volume":"6","author":"Cardoso","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energy Rep."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1365\/s35595-011-0006-7","article-title":"Extreme Downsizing by the two-cylinder gasoline engine from Fiat","volume":"11","author":"Mastrangelo","year":"2011","journal-title":"ATZautotechnology"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Omanovic, A., Zsiga, N., Soltic, P., and Onder, C. (2021). Increased internal combustion engine efficiency with optimized valve timings in extended stroke operation. Energies, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/en14102750"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1999","DOI":"10.4271\/2016-01-2160","article-title":"The Effects of Cylinder Deactivation on the Thermal Behaviour and Performance of a Three Cylinder Spark Ignition Engine","volume":"9","author":"Bech","year":"2016","journal-title":"SAE Int. J. Engines"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mechmachtheory.2011.11.006","article-title":"Determination of optimal position for both support bearing and unbalance mass of balance shaft","volume":"50","author":"Kim","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mech. Mach. Theory"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1950","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mechmachtheory.2011.07.014","article-title":"Investigation of dynamic characteristics of a valve train system","volume":"46","author":"Guo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mech. Mach. Theory"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mechmachtheory.2016.03.011","article-title":"Reducing torsional vibrations by means of a kinematically driven flywheel\u2014Theory and experiment","volume":"102","author":"Pfabe","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mech. Mach. Theory"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3837","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsv.2014.04.017","article-title":"New electromagnetic ring balancer for active imbalance compensation of rotating machinery","volume":"333","author":"Fan","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Sound Vib."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blair, G.P. (1999). Design and Simulation of Four-Stroke Engines, SAE International.","DOI":"10.4271\/R-186"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Uicker, J.J., Pennock, G.R., and Shigley, J.E. (2016). Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, Oxford University Press. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Budynas, R.G., and Nisbett, K.J. (2010). Shigley\u2019s Mechanical Engineering Design, McGraw-Hill. [9th ed.]."}],"container-title":["Designs"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2411-9660\/8\/3\/47\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:44:16Z","timestamp":1760107456000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2411-9660\/8\/3\/47"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,17]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6]]}},"alternative-id":["designs8030047"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/designs8030047","relation":{},"ISSN":["2411-9660"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2411-9660"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,17]]}}}