{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,25]],"date-time":"2026-04-25T14:25:50Z","timestamp":1777127150980,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,7]],"date-time":"2025-07-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1751846400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Construct Innovate Technology Centre and Harcourt Technologies Limited (HTL)","award":["CISFC1-23_013"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CISFC1-23_013"]}]},{"name":"Construct Innovate Technology Centre and Harcourt Technologies Limited (HTL)","award":["13\/RC\/2092_P2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["13\/RC\/2092_P2"]}]},{"name":"Ecocem Materials and the Science Foundation Ireland (SFI) Research Centre in Applied Geosciences hosted by UCD","award":["CISFC1-23_013"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CISFC1-23_013"]}]},{"name":"Ecocem Materials and the Science Foundation Ireland (SFI) Research Centre in Applied Geosciences hosted by UCD","award":["13\/RC\/2092_P2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["13\/RC\/2092_P2"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Designs"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Although 3D-printed concrete (3DPC) offers advantages such as faster construction, reduced labour costs, and minimized material waste, concerns remain about its long-term durability. This review examines these challenges by assessing how the unique layer-by-layer manufacturing process of 3DPC influences key material properties and overall durability. The formation of interfacial porosity and anisotropic microstructures can compromise structural integrity over time, increasing susceptibility to environmental degradation. Increased porosity at layer interfaces and the presence of shrinkage-induced cracking, including both plastic and autogenous shrinkage, contribute to reduced durability. Studies on freeze\u2013thaw performance indicate that 3DPC can achieve durability comparable to cast concrete when proper mix designs and air-entraining agents are used. Chemical resistance, particularly under sulfuric acid exposure, remains a challenge, but improvements have been observed with the inclusion of supplementary cementitious materials such as silica fume. In addition, tests for chloride ingress and carbonation reveal that permeability and resistance are highly sensitive to printing parameters, material composition, and curing conditions. Carbonation resistance, in particular, appears to be lower in 3DPC than in traditional concrete. This review highlights the need for further research and emphasizes that optimizing mix designs and printing processes is critical to improving the long-term performance of 3D-printed concrete structures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/designs9040085","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,7]],"date-time":"2025-07-07T11:19:27Z","timestamp":1751887167000},"page":"85","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Emerging Insights into the Durability of 3D-Printed Concrete: Recent Advances in Mix Design Parameters and Testing"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"James","family":"Bradshaw","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Critical Infrastructure, School of Civil Engineering, University College Dublin, D04 V1W8 Belfield, Ireland"}]},{"given":"Wen","family":"Si","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Critical Infrastructure, School of Civil Engineering, University College Dublin, D04 V1W8 Belfield, Ireland"},{"name":"Construct Innovate, School of Civil Engineering, University College Dublin, D04 V1W8 Belfield, Ireland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2898-1827","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mehran","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Critical Infrastructure, School of Civil Engineering, University College Dublin, D04 V1W8 Belfield, Ireland"},{"name":"Construct Innovate, School of Civil Engineering, University College Dublin, D04 V1W8 Belfield, Ireland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2159-2634","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ciaran","family":"McNally","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Critical Infrastructure, School of Civil Engineering, University College Dublin, D04 V1W8 Belfield, Ireland"},{"name":"Construct Innovate, School of Civil Engineering, University College Dublin, D04 V1W8 Belfield, Ireland"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"101146","article-title":"An automated system for 3D printing functionally graded concrete-based materials","volume":"33","author":"Craveiro","year":"2020","journal-title":"Addit. 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