{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,19]],"date-time":"2025-11-19T14:57:45Z","timestamp":1763564265296,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,31]],"date-time":"2023-03-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1680220800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia, Portugal","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2021.08571.BD"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021.08571.BD"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["EJIHPE"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Postural control depends on attentional resources besides automatic processes. The dual-task paradigm is a possible approach to analyzing the interference and performance between motor and\/or cognitive tasks. Various studies showed that, when individuals simultaneously perform two tasks, the postural stability can decline during a dual-task compared with a single-task due to the attentional resources required performing the tasks. However, little is known about the cortical and muscular activity pattern during dual-task performance. Therefore, this study aims to analyze the muscular and prefrontal activity under dual-task performance in healthy young adults. Thirty-four healthy young adults (mean age \u00b1 SD = 22.74 \u00b1 3.74 years) were recruited to perform a postural task (standing posture) and a dual-task (maintaining standing posture while performing a cognitive task). Lower-limb muscle activity was bilaterally collected from five muscles using surface electromyography (sEMG), and the co-contraction index (CCI) was also calculated for selected muscle pairings. The oxy- and deoxyhemoglobin concentrations (prefrontal cortex activity) were recorded using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Data were compared between single- and dual-task performance. Prefrontal activity increased (p &lt; 0.05), and muscle activity decreased in most analyzed muscles (p &lt; 0.05), from the single-task to cognitive dual-task performing. The co-contraction index patterns changed from single- to dual-task conditions in most selected muscle pairs (p &lt; 0.05). We conclude that the cognitive task negatively interfered with motor performance once the muscle activity decreased and the prefrontal cortex activity increased under a dual-task, suggesting that young adults prioritized cognitive task performance, and they allocated more attentional resources to the cognitive task over the motor performance. Understanding the neuromotor changes can help adopt a better clinical practice to prevent injuries. However, future studies are recommended to assess and monitor muscular and cortical activity during the dual-task performance to provide additional information about the cortical and muscular activity patterns in postural control while performing a dual-task.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ejihpe13040055","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,31]],"date-time":"2023-03-31T03:02:01Z","timestamp":1680231721000},"page":"736-747","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Muscular and Prefrontal Cortex Activity during Dual-Task Performing in Young Adults"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4446-2894","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marina","family":"Saraiva","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"RoboCorp Laboratory, i2A, Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra, 3046-854 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"Faculty of Sports and CIAFEL, The University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Centre for Mechanical Engineering, Materials and Processes, CEMMPRE, University of Coimbra, 3030-788 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1500-355X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Ant\u00f3nio","family":"Castro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RoboCorp Laboratory, i2A, Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra, 3046-854 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"Centre for Mechanical Engineering, Materials and Processes, CEMMPRE, University of Coimbra, 3030-788 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"Sector of Physiotherapy, School of Health Sciences, Polytechnic Institute of Leiria, 2411-901 Leiria, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4109-2939","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o Paulo","family":"Vilas-Boas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Sports and CIAFEL, The University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"LABIOMEP-UP, Faculty of Sports and CIFI2D, The University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2565","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2013.08.002","article-title":"Cognitive-motor interference during functional mobility after stroke: State of the science and implications for future research","volume":"94","author":"Plummer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2007.10.023","article-title":"The interaction between executive attention and postural control in dual-task conditions: Children with cerebral palsy","volume":"89","author":"Reilly","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Behrangrad, S., Zoghi, M., Mansouri, F., and Jaberzadeh, S. (2021). How increased cognitive load affects the dual-task cost in healthy? A randomized, double-blind sham-controlled study. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.11.23.469768"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0966-6362(01)00156-4","article-title":"Attention and the control of posture and gait: A review of an emerging area of research","volume":"16","author":"Woollacott","year":"2002","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"M112","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/55.3.M112","article-title":"Cognitive influence on postural stability: A neuromuscular analysis in young and older adults","volume":"55","author":"Rankin","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.2147\/CIA.S125201","article-title":"Effects of dual tasks and dual-task training on postural stability: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"12","author":"Ghai","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Interv. Aging"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ii7","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/afl077","article-title":"Postural orientation and equilibrium: What do we need to know about neural control of balance to prevent falls?","volume":"35","author":"Horak","year":"2006","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00913.2011","article-title":"Age-related changes in the behavior of the muscle-tendon unit of the gastrocnemius medialis during upright stance","volume":"112","author":"Baudry","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1186\/s40101-017-0149-3","article-title":"Differences of muscle co-contraction of the ankle joint between young and elderly adults during dynamic postural control at different speeds","volume":"36","author":"Iwamoto","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Physiol. Anthropol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3321","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-016-4730-5","article-title":"Cortical activity modulations underlying age-related performance differences during posture\u2013cognition dual tasking","volume":"234","author":"Ozdemir","year":"2016","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2017.01.010","article-title":"Functional implications of muscle co-contraction during gait in advanced age","volume":"53","author":"Lo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijge.2013.01.014","article-title":"Age-related Differences in the Influence of Cognitive Task Performance on Postural Control Under Unstable Balance Conditions","volume":"7","author":"Makizako","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/S1050-6411(00)00027-4","article-title":"Development of recommendations for SEMG sensors and sensor placement procedures","volume":"10","author":"Hermens","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Electromyogr. Kinesiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"586","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelekin.2006.09.005","article-title":"Clinical applications of high-density surface EMG: A systematic review","volume":"6","author":"Drost","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Electromyogr. Kinesiol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1589\/jpts.32.467","article-title":"Contribution of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex activation, ankle muscle activities, and coactivation during dual-tasks to postural steadiness: A pilot study","volume":"32","author":"Fujita","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Phys. Ther. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2922","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2010.10.058","article-title":"Assessment of the cerebral cortex during motor task behaviours in adults: A systematic review of functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) studies","volume":"54","author":"Leff","year":"2011","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2016.11.002","article-title":"Cortical activation during balancing on a balance board","volume":"51","author":"Herold","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1186\/s40814-016-0099-2","article-title":"Measuring prefrontal cortical activity during dual task walking in patients with Parkinson\u2019s disease: Feasibility of using a new portable fNIRS device","volume":"2","author":"Nieuwhof","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pilot Feasibility Stud."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/glr068","article-title":"fNIRS Study of Walking and Walking While Talking in Young and Old Individuals","volume":"66","author":"Holtzer","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-0003-11-85","article-title":"Increased frontal brain activation during walking while dual tasking: An fNIRS study in healthy young adults","volume":"11","author":"Mirelman","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/9.1.20","article-title":"Physiological characteristics of capacity constraints in working memory as revealed by functional MRI","volume":"9","author":"Callicott","year":"1999","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpsycho.2014.03.005","article-title":"Age-related changes in prefrontal activity during walking in dual-task situations: A fNIRS study","volume":"92","author":"Beurskens","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychophysiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1097\/00001577-200113030-00005","article-title":"Dual-Task Methodology: Applications in studies of cognitive and motor performance in adults and chldren","volume":"13","author":"Huang","year":"2001","journal-title":"Pediatr. Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2010.514280","article-title":"Use of dual-task methodology for skill assessment and development: Examples from rugby league","volume":"29","author":"Gabbett","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Sport. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1735","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2012.713979","article-title":"Dual-task assessment of a sporting skill: Influence of task complexity and relationship with competitive performances","volume":"30","author":"Gabbett","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Sport. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"786","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-1331.2009.02612.x","article-title":"Stops walking when talking: A predictor of falls in older adults?","volume":"16","author":"Beauchet","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1007\/s40520-019-01210-w","article-title":"Gait symmetry in the dual task condition as a predictor of future falls among independent older adults: A 2-year longitudinal study","volume":"31","author":"Gillain","year":"2019","journal-title":"Aging Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1117\/1.NPh.4.4.041403","article-title":"Functional near-infrared spectroscopy in movement science: A systematic review on cortical activity in postural and walking tasks","volume":"4","author":"Herold","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurophotonics"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Onofrei, R.R., Amaricai, E., Suciu, O., David, V.L., Rata, A.L., and Hogea, E. (2020). Smartphone Use and Postural Balance in Healthy Young Adults. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17093307"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neucli.2018.10.003","article-title":"The interaction between cognition and motor control: A theoretical framework for dual-task interference effects on posture, gait initiation, gait and turning","volume":"48","author":"Bayot","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurophysiol. Clin."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ayaz, H., Izzetoglu, M., Shewokis, P.A., and Onaral, B. (September, January 31). Sliding-window motion artifact rejection for Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy. Proceedings of the 2010 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology, Buenos Aires, Argentina.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEMBS.2010.5627113"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-925X-9-16","article-title":"Motion artifact cancellation in NIR spectroscopy using discrete Kalman filtering","volume":"9","author":"Izzetoglu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biomed. Eng. Online"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dans, P.W., Foglia, S.D., and Nelson, A.J. (2021). Data Processing in Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) Motor Control Research. Brain Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci11050606"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.4236\/jbbs.2016.612042","article-title":"Brain Activation in the Prefrontal Cortex during Motor and Cognitive Tasks in Adults","volume":"6","author":"Liang","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Behav. Brain Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Hermens, H.J., Freriks, B., Merletti, R., Stegeman, D., Blok, J., Rau, G., Disselhorst-Klug, C., and H\u00e4gg, G. (1999). Seniam: European Recommendations for Surface Electromyography, Roessingh Research and Development."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Konrad, P. (2006). The ABC of EMG: A Pratical Introduction to Kinesiological Electromyography, Noraxon U.S.A., Inc.. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1007\/s001670000130","article-title":"Dynamic stability after ACL injury: Who can hop?","volume":"8","author":"Rudolph","year":"2000","journal-title":"Knee Surg. Sport. Traumatol. Arthrosc."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2015.00225","article-title":"Measuring treatment effects on dual-task performance: A framework for research and clinical practice","volume":"9","author":"Plummer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/S0896-6273(01)00285-9","article-title":"The Prefrontal Cortex\u2014An Update: Time is of the Essence","volume":"30","author":"Fuster","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhh111","article-title":"The Prefrontal Cortex shows Context- specific Changes in Effective Connectivity to Motor or Visual Cortex during the Selection of Action or Colour","volume":"15","author":"Rowe","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"988","DOI":"10.1006\/nimg.2002.1156","article-title":"Attention to Action: Specific Modulation of Corticocortical Interactions in Humans","volume":"17","author":"Rowe","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/S1050-6411(99)00026-7","article-title":"Muscle pre- and coactivity during downward stepping are associated with leg stiffness in aging","volume":"10","author":"Devita","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Electromyogr. Kinesiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1159\/000052797","article-title":"Age-Related Changes of Postural Control: Effect of Cognitive Tasks","volume":"47","author":"Melzer","year":"2001","journal-title":"Gerontology"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"906","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.95.3.906","article-title":"The role of left prefrontal cortex in language and memory","volume":"95","author":"Gabrieli","year":"1998","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nielsen, J.A., Zielinski, B.A., Ferguson, M.A., Lainhart, J.E., and Anderson, J.S. (2013). An Evaluation of the Left-Brain vs. Right-Brain Hypothesis with Resting State Functional Connectivity Magnetic Resonance Imaging. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0071275"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.4103\/0019-5545.43634","article-title":"Neuropsychology of prefrontal cortex","volume":"50","author":"Siddiqui","year":"2008","journal-title":"Indian J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X00020008","article-title":"The organisation of human postural movements: A formal basis and experimental synthesis","volume":"8","author":"Nashner","year":"1985","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2011.10.008","article-title":"Cognitive task performance causes impaired maximum force production in human hand flexor muscles","volume":"89","author":"Bray","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mad.2017.12.004","article-title":"Cortical control of upright stance in elderly","volume":"169","author":"Ozdemir","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mech. Ageing Dev."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-017-0820-1","article-title":"Muscle Oximetry in Sports Science: A Systematic Review","volume":"48","author":"Perrey","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sport. Med."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1233","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-019-01116-7","article-title":"The Effects of Cognitive Loading on Motor Behavior in Injured Individuals: A Systematic Review","volume":"49","author":"Burcal","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sport. Med."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100028","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnrt.2022.100028","article-title":"Research progress in the application of motor-cognitive dual-task training in rehabilitation of walking function in stroke patients","volume":"11","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Neurorestoratol."}],"container-title":["European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2254-9625\/13\/4\/55\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:07:47Z","timestamp":1760123267000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2254-9625\/13\/4\/55"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,31]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4]]}},"alternative-id":["ejihpe13040055"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ejihpe13040055","relation":{},"ISSN":["2254-9625"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2254-9625"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,31]]}}}