{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,3]],"date-time":"2025-12-03T03:38:46Z","timestamp":1764733126490,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,5]],"date-time":"2025-04-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1743811200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["EJIHPE"],"abstract":"<jats:p>(1) Background: Teachers\u2019 visual behaviour in classes has an important role in learning and instruction. Hence, understanding the dynamics of classroom interactions is fundamental in educational research. As mapping evidence on this topic would highlight concepts and knowledge gaps in this area, this systematic review aimed to collect and systematise the analysis of teachers\u2019 visual behaviour in classroom settings through the use of eye-tracking apparatus; (2) Methods: The methodological procedures were registered in the INPLASY database and this systematic review used the PRISMA criteria for the selection and analysis of studies in this area. We searched on six literature databases (B-on, ERIC, ScienceDirect, Scopus, TRC and WoS) between 1 January 2015 and 31 December 2024. Eligible articles used eye tracking apparatus and analysed teachers\u2019 visual behaviour as a dependent variable in the experiment; (3) Results: The main results of the articles selected (n = 41) points to the differences in teachers\u2019 visual behaviour in terms of professional experience and the relationship between gaze patterns and several classroom variables; (4) Conclusions: A deeper understanding of teachers\u2019 visual behaviour can lead to more effective teacher training and better classroom environments. The scientific research in this area would benefit from more standardized and robust methodologies that allow more reliable analyses of the added value of eye tracking technology.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ejihpe15040054","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,9]],"date-time":"2025-04-09T07:49:02Z","timestamp":1744184942000},"page":"54","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Analysis of Teachers\u2019 Visual Behaviour in Classes: A Systematic Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0621-4881","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rodrigo","family":"Mendes","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Sports Sciences and Physical Education, University of Coimbra, 3040-248 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"Coimbra Education School, Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra, Rua Dom Jo\u00e3o III-Solum, 3030-329 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio RoboCorp, IIA, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico de Coimbra, 3040-256 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"Applied Sport Sciences Research Unit (UNICID-ASSERT), Coimbra Education School, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico de Coimbra, 3040-256 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"given":"M\u00e1rio","family":"Pereira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Sports Sciences and Physical Education, University of Coimbra, 3040-248 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8490-1794","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paulo","family":"Nobre","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Sports Sciences and Physical Education, University of Coimbra, 3040-248 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"Interdisciplinary Centre for the Study of Human Performance (CIPER), Faculty of Human Kinetics, University of Lisbon, 1495-751 Cruz Quebrada-Dafundo, Portugal"},{"name":"Center for Interdisciplinary Studies (CEIS20), University of Coimbra, 3030-789 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3774-6661","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gon\u00e7alo","family":"Dias","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Coimbra Education School, Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra, Rua Dom Jo\u00e3o III-Solum, 3030-329 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio RoboCorp, IIA, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico de Coimbra, 3040-256 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"Applied Sport Sciences Research Unit (UNICID-ASSERT), Coimbra Education School, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico de Coimbra, 3040-256 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"Interdisciplinary Centre for the Study of Human Performance (CIPER), Faculty of Human Kinetics, University of Lisbon, 1495-751 Cruz Quebrada-Dafundo, Portugal"},{"name":"Sport Physical Activity and Health Research & Innovation Center (SPRINT), 3030-329 Coimbra, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1080\/0142159X.2017.1391373","article-title":"Eye-tracking technology in medical education: A systematic review","volume":"40","author":"Ashraf","year":"2018","journal-title":"Medical Teacher"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1080\/1743727X.2018.1496415","article-title":"Eye tracking methodology for studying teacher learning: A review of the research","volume":"42","author":"Beach","year":"2019","journal-title":"International Journal of Research & Method in Education"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Biermann, A., Br\u00fcnken, R., Lewalter, D., and Grub, A. (2023). Assessment of noticing of classroom disruptions: A multi-methods approach. Frontiers in Education, 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2023.1266826"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lindif.2022.102179","article-title":"Teachers\u2019 visual focus of attention in relation to students\u2019 basic academic skills and teachers\u2019 individual support for students: An eye-tracking study","volume":"98","author":"Chaudhuri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Learning & Individual Differences"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chaudhuri, S., Pakarinen, E., Lerkkanen, M., and J\u00f5gi, A. (2023). Teaching practices mediating the effect of teachers\u2019 psychological stress, and not physiological on their visual focus of attention. Frontiers in Education, 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2023.1283701"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, S. (2024). The application of eye-tracking technology in chemistry education research: A systematic review. Research in Science & Technological Education, 1\u201320.","DOI":"10.1080\/02635143.2024.2435343"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2501","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-020-10368-0","article-title":"Investigation of classroom management skills by using eye-tracking technology","volume":"26","author":"Coskun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Education and Information Technologies"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.4103\/sja.SJA_543_18","article-title":"The STROBE guidelines","volume":"13","author":"Cuschieri","year":"2019","journal-title":"Saudi Journal of Anaesthesia"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duvivier, V., Derobertmasure, A., and Demeuse, M. (2024). Eye tracking in a teaching context: Comparative study of the professional vision of university supervisor trainers and pre-service teachers in initial training for secondary education in French-speaking Belgium. Frontiers in Education, 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2024.1326752"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gabel, S., Keskin, \u00d6., Gegenfurtner, A., Kollar, I., and Lewalter, D. (2023). Guiding pre-service teachers\u2019 visual attention through instructional settings: An eye-tracking study. Frontiers in Education, 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2023.1282848"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tate.2020.103213","article-title":"How does learners\u2019 behavior attract preservice teachers\u2019 attention during teaching?","volume":"97","author":"Goldberg","year":"2021","journal-title":"Teaching and Teacher Education"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grub, A., Biermann, A., Lewalter, D., and Br\u00fcnken, R. (2022). Professional vision and the compensatory effect of a minimal instructional intervention: A quasi-experimental eye-tracking study with novice and expert teachers. Frontiers in Education, 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2022.890690"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102877","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tate.2019.102877","article-title":"Teacher\u2019s visual attention when scaffolding collaborative mathematical problem solving","volume":"86","author":"Haataja","year":"2019","journal-title":"Teaching and Teacher Education"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heinonen, N., Katajavuori, N., and S\u00f6dervik, I. (2023). University teachers\u2019 professional vision with respect to their conceptions of teaching and learning: Findings from an eye-tracking study. Frontiers in Education, 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2023.1232273"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.14786\/flr.v12i2.1417","article-title":"Student self-regulated learning in teacher professional vision: Results from combining student self-reports, teacher ratings, and mobile eye tracking in the high school classroom","volume":"12","author":"Horlenko","year":"2024","journal-title":"Frontline Learning Research"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104912","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2023.104912","article-title":"Body in motion, attention in focus: A virtual reality study on teachers\u2019 movement patterns and noticing","volume":"206","author":"Huang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jarodzka, H., van Driel, S., Catrysse, L., and Crasborn, F. (2023). Classroom chronicles: Through the eyeglasses of teachers at varying experience levels. Frontiers in Education, 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2023.1280766"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaminskien\u0117, L., Horlenko, K., Matulaitien\u0117, J., Ponomarenko, T., Rutkien\u0117, A., and Tandzegolskien\u0117-Bielaglov\u0117, I. (2023). Mobile eye tracking evoked teacher self-reflection about teaching practices and behavior towards students in higher education. Frontiers in Education, 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2023.1209856"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1007\/s11251-021-09570-5","article-title":"Noticing and weighing alternatives in the reflection of regular classroom teaching: Evidence of expertise using mobile eye-tracking","volume":"50","author":"Keller","year":"2022","journal-title":"Instructional Science"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keskin, \u00d6., Gabel, S., Gegenfurtner, A., and Kollar, I. (2023). Relations between pre-service teacher gaze, teacher attitude, and student ethnicity. Frontiers in Education, 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2023.1272671"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tate.2023.104142","article-title":"Keeping track in classroom discourse: Comparing in-service and pre-service teachers\u2019 visual attention to students\u2019 hand-raising behavior","volume":"128","author":"Kosel","year":"2023","journal-title":"Teaching and Teacher Education"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kosel, C., Seidel, T., and Holzberger, D. (2021). Identifying expert and novice visual scanpath patterns and their relationship to assessing learning-relevant student characteristics. Frontiers in Education, 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2020.612175"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kosko, K., Ferdig, R., Lenart, C., Heisler, J., and Guan, Q. (2024). Exploring teachers\u2019 eye-tracking data and professional noticing when viewing a 360 video of elementary mathematics. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 1\u201324.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10857-024-09667-x"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"6679","article-title":"Visual attention of science class: An eye-tracking case study of student and teacher","volume":"20","author":"Kwon","year":"2017","journal-title":"Information"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.14786\/flr.v9i4.965","article-title":"Students in sight: Using mobile eye-tracking to investigate mathematics teachers\u2019 gaze behaviour during task instruction-giving","volume":"9","author":"Maatta","year":"2021","journal-title":"Frontline Learning Research"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Minarikova, E., Smidekova, Z., Janik, M., and Holmqvist, K. (2021). Teachers\u2019 professional vision: Teachers\u2019 gaze during the act of teaching and after the event. Frontiers in Education, 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2021.716579"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103907","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tate.2022.103907","article-title":"Professional vision in the classroom: Teachers\u2019 knowledge-based reasoning explaining their visual focus of attention to students","volume":"121","author":"Muhonen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Teaching and Teacher Education"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101607","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijer.2020.101607","article-title":"Dialogue through the eyes: Exploring teachers\u2019 focus of attention during educational dialogue","volume":"102","author":"Muhonen","year":"2020","journal-title":"International Journal of Educational Research"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.14786\/flr.v10i2.1031","article-title":"University teachers\u2019 focus on students: Examining the relationships between visual attention, conceptions of teaching and pedagogical training","volume":"10","author":"Murtonen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Frontline Learning Research"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-020-09567-5","article-title":"Investigating visual perception in teaching and learning with advanced eye-tracking methodologies: Rewards and challenges of an innovative research paradigm","volume":"33","year":"2021","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1002\/jrsm.1535","article-title":"Introduction to PRISMA 2020 and implications for research synthesis methodologists","volume":"13","author":"Page","year":"2022","journal-title":"Research Synthesis Methods"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1007\/s12564-022-09818-w","article-title":"Experienced nursery teachers gaze longer at children during play than do novice teachers: An eye-tracking study","volume":"24","author":"Sadamatsu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Asia Pacific Education Review"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1007\/s10649-019-9878-z","article-title":"Domain-specific interpretation of eye tracking data: Towards a refined use of the eye-mind hypothesis for the field of geometry","volume":"101","author":"Schindler","year":"2019","journal-title":"Educational Studies in Mathematics"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schnitzler, K., Holzberger, D., and Seidel, T. (2020). Connecting judgment process and accuracy of student teachers: Differences in observation and student engagement cues to assess student characteristics. Frontiers in Education, 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2020.602470"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-020-09532-2","article-title":"Student characteristics in the eyes of teachers: Differences Between novice and expert teachers in judgment accuracy, observed behavioral cues, and gaze","volume":"33","author":"Seidel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shinoda, H., Yamamoto, T., and Imai-Matsumura, K. (2021). Teachers\u2019 visual processing of children\u2019s off-task behaviors in class: A comparison between teachers and student teachers. PLoS ONE, 16, (11).","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0259410"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-89582-2_5","article-title":"Professional vision at the workplace illustrated by the example of teachers: An overview of most recent research methods and findings","volume":"31","author":"Harteis","year":"2022","journal-title":"Research approaches on workplace learning: Professional and practice-based learning"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.16910\/jemr.13.4.1","article-title":"Teachers\u2019 gaze over space and time in a real-world classroom","volume":"13","author":"Smidekova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Eye Movement Research"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"127","article-title":"Through teachers\u2019 eyes: An eye-tracking study of classroom interactions","volume":"73","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sodobna Pedagogika-Journal of Contemporary Educational Studies"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1101464","DOI":"10.1016\/j.learninstruc.2021.101464","article-title":"Novice and expert teachers\u2019 noticing of classroom management in whole-group and partner work activities: Evidence from teachers\u2019 gaze and identification of events","volume":"74","author":"Stahnke","year":"2021","journal-title":"Learning and Instruction"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stahnke, R., and Friesen, M. (2023). The subject matters for the professional vision of classroom management: An exploratory study with biology and mathematics expert teachers. Frontiers in Education, 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2023.1253459"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1007\/s11618-017-0731-9","article-title":"What is in the eye of preservice teachers while instructing? An eye-tracking study about attention processes in different teaching situations","volume":"20","author":"Seidel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Zeitschrift fur Erziehungswissenschaft"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Telgmann, L., and M\u00fcller, K. (2023). Training & prompting pre-service teachers\u2019 noticing in a standardized classroom simulation\u2014A mobile eye-tracking study. Frontiers in Education, 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2023.1266800"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1080\/1554480X.2022.2065994","article-title":"Transitions from presence, belonging to engaged participation in an inclusive classroom: An eye-tracking study","volume":"18","author":"Teo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pedagogies"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"168","article-title":"Teaching on zoom in the eyes of the lecturer: An eye tracking study","volume":"3","author":"Weigelt","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ubiquity Proceedings"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104568","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tate.2024.104568","article-title":"Eye-tracking research on teachers\u2019 professional vision: A scoping review","volume":"144","author":"Witt","year":"2024","journal-title":"Teaching and Teacher Education"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1007\/s11251-016-9367-z","article-title":"Teacher vision: Expert and novice teachers\u2019 perception of problematic classroom management scenes","volume":"44","author":"Wolff","year":"2016","journal-title":"Instructional Science"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wyss, C., B\u00e4uerlein, K., and Mahler, S. (2023). Pre-service and in-service teachers\u2019 professional vision depending on the video perspective\u2014What teacher gaze and verbal reports can tell us. Frontiers in Education, 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2023.1282992"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-020-09535-z","article-title":"Student teachers\u2019 and teacher educators\u2019 professional vision: Findings from an eye tracking study","volume":"33","author":"Wyss","year":"2021","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1080\/14703297.2021.1951808","article-title":"The teacher\u2019s eye gaze in university classrooms: Evidence from a field study","volume":"60","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Innovations in Education and Teaching International"}],"container-title":["European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2254-9625\/15\/4\/54\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:10:43Z","timestamp":1760029843000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2254-9625\/15\/4\/54"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,5]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]}},"alternative-id":["ejihpe15040054"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ejihpe15040054","relation":{},"ISSN":["2254-9625"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2254-9625"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,5]]}}}