{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T17:13:21Z","timestamp":1777655601913,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":121,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,9]],"date-time":"2022-02-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1644364800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Electronics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Employing electromagnetic fields (EMFs) in new wireless communication and sensing technologies has substantially increased the level of human exposure to EMF waves. This paper presents a useful insight into the interaction of electromagnetic fields with biological media that is defined by the heat generation due to induced currents and dielectric loss. The specific absorption rate (SAR) defines the heating amount in a biological medium that is irradiated by an electromagnetic field value. The paper reviews the radio frequency hazards due to the SAR based on various safety standards and organisations, including a detailed investigation of previously published work in terms of modelling and measurements. It also summarises the most common techniques utilised between 1978 and 2021, in terms of the operational frequency spectrum, bandwidth, and SAR values.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics11040511","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,9]],"date-time":"2022-02-09T21:19:06Z","timestamp":1644441546000},"page":"511","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":75,"title":["Wireless Electromagnetic Radiation Assessment Based on the Specific Absorption Rate (SAR): A Review Case Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Mohamed","family":"Abdul-Al","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering and Informatics, University of Bradford, Bradford BD7 1DP, UK"}]},{"given":"Ahmed S. I.","family":"Amar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering and Informatics, University of Bradford, Bradford BD7 1DP, UK"},{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University, Abassia, Cairo 11566, Egypt"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0440-8025","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Issa","family":"Elfergani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering and Informatics, University of Bradford, Bradford BD7 1DP, UK"},{"name":"Instituto de Telecomunica\u00e7\u00f5es, Campus Universit\u00e1rio de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Richard","family":"Littlehales","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SARgard Ltd., Harrogate HG5 9DA, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8375-0269","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Naser","family":"Ojaroudi Parchin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering and the Built Environment, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh EH10 5DT, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7859-3550","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yasir","family":"Al-Yasir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering and Informatics, University of Bradford, Bradford BD7 1DP, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8439-7321","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chan Hwang","family":"See","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering and the Built Environment, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh EH10 5DT, UK"}]},{"given":"Dawei","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Honor Device Company Ltd., Shenzhen 518100, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7774-6703","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zuhairiah","family":"Zainal Abidin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Electrical & Electronic Engineering, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Batu Pahat 86400, Malaysia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8263-1572","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad","family":"Alibakhshikenari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Signal Theory and Communications, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, 28911 Legan\u00e9s, Madrid, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9803-9346","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chemseddine","family":"Zebiri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoired\u2019Electronique de Puissance et Commande Industrielle (LEPCI), Department of Electronics, University of Ferhat Abbas, S\u00e9tif -1-, S\u00e9tif 19000, Algeria"}]},{"given":"Fauzi","family":"Elmegri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering and Informatics, University of Bradford, Bradford BD7 1DP, UK"}]},{"given":"Musa","family":"Abusitta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering and Informatics, University of Bradford, Bradford BD7 1DP, UK"}]},{"given":"Atta","family":"Ullah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering and Informatics, University of Bradford, Bradford BD7 1DP, UK"}]},{"given":"Fathi M. A.","family":"Abdussalam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering and Informatics, University of Bradford, Bradford BD7 1DP, UK"}]},{"given":"Jonathan","family":"Rodriguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering and Informatics, University of Bradford, Bradford BD7 1DP, UK"},{"name":"Instituto de Telecomunica\u00e7\u00f5es, Campus Universit\u00e1rio de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Neil J.","family":"McEwan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering and Informatics, University of Bradford, Bradford BD7 1DP, UK"}]},{"given":"James M.","family":"Noras","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering and Informatics, University of Bradford, Bradford BD7 1DP, UK"},{"name":"SARgard Ltd., Harrogate HG5 9DA, UK"}]},{"given":"Russell","family":"Hodgetts","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering and Informatics, University of Bradford, Bradford BD7 1DP, UK"},{"name":"SARgard Ltd., Harrogate HG5 9DA, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2972-9965","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raed A.","family":"Abd-Alhameed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering and Informatics, University of Bradford, Bradford BD7 1DP, UK"},{"name":"Information and Communication Engineering Department, Basrah University College of Science and Technology, Basrah 24001, Iraq"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2017.2765344","article-title":"Radio Resource Management in Machine-to-Machine Communications\u2014A Survey","volume":"20","author":"Xia","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. 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