{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,9]],"date-time":"2026-05-09T17:07:16Z","timestamp":1778346436271,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,24]],"date-time":"2022-11-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1669248000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Centro Internacional sobre el envejecimiento, CENIE (c\u00f3digo 0348_CIE_6_E) Interreg V-A Espa\u00f1a-Portugal (POCTEP)","award":["0348_CIE_6_E"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0348_CIE_6_E"]}]},{"name":"Centro Internacional sobre el envejecimiento, CENIE (c\u00f3digo 0348_CIE_6_E) Interreg V-A Espa\u00f1a-Portugal (POCTEP)","award":["UIDB\/00319\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/00319\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia within the R&amp;D Units Project Scope","award":["0348_CIE_6_E"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0348_CIE_6_E"]}]},{"name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia within the R&amp;D Units Project Scope","award":["UIDB\/00319\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/00319\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Electronics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bradykinesia is the defining motor symptom of Parkinson\u2019s disease (PD) and is reflected as a progressive reduction in speed and range of motion. The evaluation of bradykinesia severity is important for assessing disease progression, daily motor fluctuations, and therapy response. However, the clinical evaluation of PD motor signs is affected by subjectivity, leading to intra- and inter-rater variability. Moreover, the clinical assessment is performed a few times a year during pre-scheduled follow-up visits. To overcome these limitations, objective and unobtrusive methods based on wearable motion sensors and machine learning (ML) have been proposed, providing promising results. In this study, the combination of inertial sensors embedded in consumer smartwatches and different ML models is exploited to detect bradykinesia in the upper extremities and evaluate its severity. Six PD subjects and seven age-matched healthy controls were equipped with a consumer smartwatch and asked to perform a set of motor exercises for at least 6 weeks. Different feature sets, data representations, data augmentation methods, and ML models were implemented and combined. Data recorded from smartwatches\u2019 motion sensors, properly augmented and fed to a combination of Convolutional Neural Network and Random Forest model, provided the best results, with an accuracy of 0.86 and an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.94. Results suggest that the combination of consumer smartwatches and ML classification methods represents an unobtrusive solution for the detection of bradykinesia and the evaluation of its severity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics11233879","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,24]],"date-time":"2022-11-24T02:54:05Z","timestamp":1669258445000},"page":"3879","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Bradykinesia Detection in Parkinson\u2019s Disease Using Smartwatches\u2019 Inertial Sensors and Deep Learning Methods"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9968-5024","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luis","family":"Sigcha","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Instrumentation and Applied Acoustics Research Group (I2A2), ETSI Industriales, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, Campus Sur UPM, Ctra. Valencia, Km 7, 28031 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"ALGORITMI Research Center, School of Engineering, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6157-1016","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Beatriz","family":"Dom\u00ednguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instrumentation and Applied Acoustics Research Group (I2A2), ETSI Industriales, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, Campus Sur UPM, Ctra. Valencia, Km 7, 28031 Madrid, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0875-6913","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luigi","family":"Borz\u00ec","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Control and Computer Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, 10129 Turin, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9348-8038","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"N\u00e9lson","family":"Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ALGORITMI Research Center, School of Engineering, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7440-8787","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Susana","family":"Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ALGORITMI Research Center, School of Engineering, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9421-9123","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro","family":"Arezes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ALGORITMI Research Center, School of Engineering, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7847-8707","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan Manuel","family":"L\u00f3pez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instrumentation and Applied Acoustics Research Group (I2A2), ETSI Industriales, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, Campus Sur UPM, Ctra. Valencia, Km 7, 28031 Madrid, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1699-7389","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guillermo","family":"De Arcas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instrumentation and Applied Acoustics Research Group (I2A2), ETSI Industriales, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, Campus Sur UPM, Ctra. Valencia, Km 7, 28031 Madrid, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0970-0452","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ignacio","family":"Pav\u00f3n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instrumentation and Applied Acoustics Research Group (I2A2), ETSI Industriales, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, Campus Sur UPM, Ctra. Valencia, Km 7, 28031 Madrid, Spain"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1583","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.25945","article-title":"The prevalence of Parkinson\u2019s disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"29","author":"Pringsheim","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mov. Disord."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.2007.131045","article-title":"Parkinson\u2019s disease: Clinical features and diagnosis","volume":"79","author":"Jankovic","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. 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