{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,9]],"date-time":"2026-04-09T03:34:45Z","timestamp":1775705685100,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,17]],"date-time":"2026-01-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768608000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia, I.P.","award":["UID\/50021\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/50021\/2025"]}]},{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia, I.P.","award":["UID\/PRR\/50021\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/PRR\/50021\/2025"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Electronics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study presents a photovoltaic (PV)-based electric vehicle (EV) charging system designed to optimize energy use and support isolated microgrid operations. The system integrates PV panels, DC\/AC, AC\/DC, and DC\/DC converters, voltage and frequency droop control, and two energy management algorithms: Power Sharing and SEWP (Spread Energy with Priority). The DC\/AC converter demonstrated high efficiency, with stable AC output and Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) limited to 1%. The MPPT algorithm ensured optimal energy extraction under both gradual and abrupt irradiance variations. The DC\/DC converter operated in constant current mode followed by constant voltage regulation, enabling stable power delivery and preserving battery integrity. The Power Sharing algorithm, which distributes PV energy equally, favored vehicles with a higher initial state of charge (SOC), while leaving low-SOC vehicles at modest levels, reducing satisfaction under limited irradiance. In contrast, SEWP prioritized low-SOC EVs, enabling them to achieve higher SOC values compared to the Power Sharing algorithm, reducing SOC dispersion and enhancing fairness. The integration of voltage and frequency droop controls allowed the station to support microgrid stability by limiting reactive power injection to 30% of apparent power and adjusting charging current in response to frequency deviation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics15020418","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,19]],"date-time":"2026-01-19T11:35:27Z","timestamp":1768822527000},"page":"418","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["A Distributed Electric Vehicles Charging System Powered by Photovoltaic Solar Energy with Enhanced Voltage and Frequency Control in Isolated Microgrids"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-5208-0474","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro","family":"Baltazar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Engenharia Eletrot\u00e9cnica, Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias Exatas e da Engenharia, Campus Universit\u00e1rio da Penteada, Universidade da Madeira, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2955-5045","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o Dion\u00edsio","family":"Barros","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Engenharia Eletrot\u00e9cnica, Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias Exatas e da Engenharia, Campus Universit\u00e1rio da Penteada, Universidade da Madeira, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal"},{"name":"INESC-ID, Instituto de Engenharia de Sistemas e Computadores: Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e Desenvolvimento em Lisboa, Rua Alves Redol, 1000-029 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2170-4595","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu\u00eds","family":"Gomes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Engenharia Eletrot\u00e9cnica, Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias Exatas e da Engenharia, Campus Universit\u00e1rio da Penteada, Universidade da Madeira, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal"},{"name":"INESC TEC, Instituto de Engenharia de Sistemas e Computadores, Tecnologia e Ci\u00eancia, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100565","DOI":"10.1016\/j.esr.2020.100565","article-title":"Estimating energy-related CO2 emission growth in Bangladesh: The LMDI decomposition method approach","volume":"32","author":"Hasan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energy Strategy Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Natarajan, Y., Wadhwa, G., Preethaa, K., and Paul, A. 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