{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T03:50:30Z","timestamp":1760241030179,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,12]],"date-time":"2019-11-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1573516800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Electronics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANET) enable vehicles to exchange information on traffic conditions, dynamic status and localization, to enhance road safety and transportation efficiency. A typical VANET application is platooning, which can take advantage of exchanging information on speed, heading and position to allow shorter inter-vehicle distances without compromising safety. However, the platooning performance depends drastically on the quality of the communication channel, which in turn is highly influenced by the medium access control protocol (MAC). Currently, VANETs use the IEEE 802.11p MAC, which follows a carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA\/CA) policy that is prone to collisions and degrades significantly with network load. This has led to recent proposals for a time-division multiple access (TDMA)-based MAC that synchronize vehicles\u2019 beacons to prevent or reduce collisions. In this paper, we take CSMA\/CA and two TDMA-based overlay protocols, i.e., deployed over CSMA\/CA, namely PLEXE-slotted and RA-TDMAp, and carry out extensive simulations with varying platoon sizes, number of occupied lanes and transmit power to deduce empirical models that provide estimates of average number of collisions per second and average busy time ratio. In particular, we show that these estimates can be obtained from observing the number of radio-frequency (RF) neighbours, i.e., number of distinct sources of the packets received by each vehicle per time unit. These estimates can enhance the online adaptation of distributed applications, particularly platooning control, to varying conditions of the communication channel.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics8111334","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,13]],"date-time":"2019-11-13T09:11:27Z","timestamp":1573636287000},"page":"1334","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Empirical Performance Models of MAC Protocols for Cooperative Platooning Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Aqsa","family":"Aslam","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculdade de Engenharia\u2014FEUP, Universidade do Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Instituto de Telecomunica\u00e7\u00f5es\u2014IT, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Pedro M.","family":"Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculdade de Engenharia\u2014FEUP, Universidade do Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Research Center on Real-Time and Embedded Computing Systems\u2014CISTER, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Polytechnic Institute of Porto, School of Engineering\u2014ISEP, 4249-015 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4061-9786","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Frederico","family":"Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Telecomunica\u00e7\u00f5es\u2014IT, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra, School of Engineering\u2014ISEC, 3030-199 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9544-3028","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu\u00eds","family":"Almeida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculdade de Engenharia\u2014FEUP, Universidade do Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Instituto de Telecomunica\u00e7\u00f5es\u2014IT, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Research Center on Real-Time and Embedded Computing Systems\u2014CISTER, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2008.4689254","article-title":"Communication patterns in VANETs","volume":"46","author":"Schoch","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. 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