{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:16:59Z","timestamp":1760188619338,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,9]],"date-time":"2019-05-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1557360000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Energies"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The use of hydrogen as an alternative to fossil fuels for vehicle propulsion is already a reality. However, due to its physical characteristics, storage is still a challenge. There is an innovative way, presented in this study, to store hydrogen in conventional vehicles propelled by spark-ignition reciprocating engines and fuel cells, using hydrogen as fuel; the storage of hydrogen will be at high pressure within small spheres randomly packed in a tank, like the conventional tank of fuel used nowadays in current vehicles. Therefore, the main purpose of the present study is to assess the performance of this storage system and compare it to others already applied by car manufacturers in their cars. In order to evaluate the performance of this storage system, some parameters were taken into account: The energy stored by volume and stored by weight, hydrogen leakage, and compliance with current standards. This system is safer than conventional storage systems since hydrogen is stored inside small spheres containing small amounts of hydrogen. Besides, its gravimetric energy density (GED) is threefold and the volumetric energy density (VED) is about half when compared with homologous values for conventional systems, and both exceed the targets set by the U.S. Department of Energy. Regarding the leakage of hydrogen, it complies with the European Standards, provided a suitable choice of materials and dimensions is made.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/en12091762","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,13]],"date-time":"2019-05-13T11:00:57Z","timestamp":1557745257000},"page":"1762","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Assessment of an Innovative Way to Store Hydrogen in Vehicles"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6968-3450","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andresa","family":"Baptista","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"ISEP\u2014School of Engineering, Polytechnic of Porto, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0290-8018","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlos","family":"Pinho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"FEUP\u2014Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0032-7356","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gustavo","family":"Pinto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ISEP\u2014School of Engineering, Polytechnic of Porto, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Leonardo","family":"Ribeiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ISEP\u2014School of Engineering, Polytechnic of Porto, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4850-6786","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joaquim","family":"Monteiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ISEP\u2014School of Engineering, Polytechnic of Porto, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Tiago","family":"Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ISEP\u2014School of Engineering, Polytechnic of Porto, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Spiegel, C. (2007). Designing and Building Fuel Cells, McGraw-Hill. [1st ed.]. ISBN-13: 978-0071489775."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14535","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2016.05.293","article-title":"The survey of key technologies in hydrogen energy storage","volume":"41","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2014.09.014","article-title":"Hydrogen economy in China: Strengths\u2013weaknesses\u2013opportunities\u2013threats analysis and strategies prioritization","volume":"41","author":"Ren","year":"2015","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2014.09.028","article-title":"Role prioritization of hydrogen production technologies for promoting hydrogen economy in the current state of China","volume":"41","author":"Ren","year":"2015","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2013.02.042","article-title":"Building the hydrogen economy in China: Drivers, resources and technologies","volume":"23","author":"Lu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1355","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2006.10.016","article-title":"Integration of a hydrogen economy into the German energy system: An optimising modelling approach","volume":"32","author":"Ball","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2014.05.142","article-title":"Development and environmental impact of hydrogen supply chain in Japan: Assessment by the CGELCA method in Japan with a discussion of the importance of the importance of biohydrogen","volume":"39","author":"Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2007.02.004","article-title":"Transition to hydrogen economy in the United States: A 2006 status report","volume":"32","author":"Lattin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"(2019, April 11). Europe Hydrogen Refuelling Infrastructure. Available online: https:\/\/h2me.eu\/about\/hydrogen-refuelling-infrastructure\/."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"(2019, April 11). USA Hydrogen Refuelling Infrastructure, Available online: https:\/\/afdc.energy.gov\/fuels\/hydrogen_locations.html#\/find\/nearest?fuel=HY."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9486","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2018.09.177","article-title":"Trends in design of distributed energy systems using hydrogen as energy vector: A systematic literature review","volume":"44","author":"Fonseca","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2019.01.051","article-title":"Underground hydrogen storage: Characteristics and prospects","volume":"105","author":"Tarkowski","year":"2019","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Larminie, J., and Dicks, A. (2003). Fuel Cell Systems Explained, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.. [2nd ed.]. ISBN-13: 978-0768012590.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118878330"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2006.02.019","article-title":"Vehicular storage of hydrogen in insulated pressure vessels","volume":"31","author":"Aceves","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Stenmark, L. Personal communication."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jlp.2007.02.002","article-title":"The hazards and risks of hydrogen","volume":"20","author":"Crowl","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Loss Prev. Process Ind."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Stetson, N.T. (2014, January 16\u201320). Hydrogen storage overview. Proceedings of the DoE Annual Merit Review and Peer Evaluation Meeting, Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Vieira, A.C., Faria, H., Oliveira, R., Correia, N., and Marques, A.T. (2007, January 11\u201313). High Pressure On-board Storage Considering Safety Issues. Proceedings of the ICHS2007\u2014International Conference on Hydrogen Safety, San Sebastian, Spain."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17415","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2012.04.051","article-title":"Risk assessment by means of Bayesian networks: A comparative study of compressed and liquefied H2 transportation and tank station risks","volume":"37","author":"Pasman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, Y.S., Kim, S.S., and Choe, B.H. (2019). The Role of Hydrogen in Hydrogen Embrittlement of Metals: The Case of Stainless Steel. Metals, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/met9040406"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fu, L., and Fang, H. (2018). Formation Criterion of Hydrogen-Induced Cracking in Steel Based on Fracture Mechanics. Metals, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/met8110940"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-1-78242-362-1.00002-X","article-title":"Hidrogen liquefaction and liquid hydrogen storage","volume":"2","author":"Valenti","year":"2016","journal-title":"Compend. Hydrog. Energy"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Michel, F., Fieseler, H., and Allidieres, L. (2006, January 13\u201316). Liquid Hydrogen Technologies for Mobile Use. Proceedings of the WHEC 16, Lyon, France."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dusastre, V. (2010). Hydrogen-storage materials for mobile applications. Materials for Sustainable Energy, Nature Publishing Group.","DOI":"10.1142\/7848"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bossel, U., Eliasson, B., and Taylor, G. The future of the hydrogen economy bright or bleak? In Proceedings of the Fuel Cell Seminar, Miami Beach, FL, USA, 3\u20137 November 2003; pp.","DOI":"10.1080\/15453660309509023"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"National Renewable Energy Laboratory (2010). HSCoE Final Report Executive Summary."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"O\u2019Hayre, R., Cha, S., Colella, W., and Prinz, F. (2009). Fuel Cell Systems Fundamentals, Wiley. [2nd ed.]. ISBN-13 978-0470258439."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Perry, R.H., Green, D.W., and Maloney, J.O. (1997). Perry\u2019s Chemical Engineers\u2019 Handbook, McGraw-Hill. [7th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21603","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2018.09.201","article-title":"Hydrogen embrittlement in different materials: A review","volume":"43","author":"Dwivedi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/S0011-2275(97)00125-2","article-title":"Gas permeation of fibre reinforced plastics","volume":"38","author":"Humpenoder","year":"1998","journal-title":"Cryogenics"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3115(97)00146-3","article-title":"A study of hydrogen permeation in aluminum alloy treated by various oxidation processes","volume":"246","author":"Song","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Mater."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-3115(80)90146-4","article-title":"Hydrogen permeation characteristics of some austenitic and nickel-base alloys","volume":"92","author":"Maroni","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Mater."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1247","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2005.09.003","article-title":"Characterization of leaks from compressed hydrogen dispensing systems and related components","volume":"31","author":"Schefer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Schulthei\u00df, D. (2007). Permeation Barrier for Lightweight Liquid Hydrogen Tanks. [Ph.D. Thesis, Universitat Augsburg]."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Kirkaldy, J., and Young, D. (1987). Diffusion in the Condensed State, The Institute of Metals."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Steward, S.A. (1983). Review of Hydrogen Isotope Permeability Through Materials, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.","DOI":"10.2172\/5277693"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2005.04.143","article-title":"Preparation and gas permeation properties of silicon carbidebased inorganic membranes for hydrogen separation","volume":"193","author":"Suda","year":"2006","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"European Union (2019, May 09). Commission Regulation (EU) No 406\/2010 of 26 April 2010 implementing Regulation (EC) No 79\/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council on type-approval of hydrogen-powered motor vehicle. Available online: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/LexUriServ\/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2010:122:0001:0107:EN:PDF."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2742","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2010.04.161","article-title":"Allowable hydrogen permeation rate from road vehicles","volume":"36","author":"Adams","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Waterland, L.R., Powars, C., and Stickes, P. (2005). Safety Evaluation of the FuelMaker Home Refueling Concept Final Report, National Renewable Energy Laboratory.","DOI":"10.2172\/15014828"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Mitlitsky, F., Weisberg, H.A., and Myers, B. (2000). Vehicular Hydrogen Storage Using Lightweight Tanks, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Moretto, P., Acosta-Iborra, B., Baraldi, D., Galassi, M., De Miguel, N., and Ortiz Cebolla, R. (2012, January 16\u201317). Onboard Compressed Hydrogen Storage: Fast filling. Proceedings of the IA HySafe and JRC IET Workshop, Research Priorities and Knowledge Gaps in Hydrogen Safety, Berlin, Germany."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(2002). ISO 11119-3:2002 Gas Cylinders of Composite Construction\u2014Specification and Test Methods\u2014Part 3: Fully Wrapped Fibre Reinforced Composite Gas Cylinders with Non-Load-Sharing Metallic or Non-Metallic Liners, International Standards Organization."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Echtermeyer, A.T., and Lasn, K. (2013). Myers, B. Safety Factors and Test Methods for Composite Pressure Vessels, European Union."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"DNV-OS-C50:2013 (2013). Composite Components, DET NORSKE VERITAS AS."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Aigueperse, J., Mollar, P., Devilliers, D., Chemla, M., Faron, R., Romano, R., and Cuer, J. (2012). Fluorine Compounds, Inorganic. Ullmann\u2019s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1007\/s00454-005-1211-1","article-title":"A Formulation of the Kepler Conjecture","volume":"36","author":"Hales","year":"2006","journal-title":"Discret. Comput. Geom."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"1","article-title":"A Formal Proof of the Kepler Conjecture","volume":"5","author":"Hales","year":"2017","journal-title":"Forum Math."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2918","DOI":"10.1039\/c001973a","article-title":"Jamming of frictional spheres and random loose packing","volume":"6","author":"Silbert","year":"2010","journal-title":"Soft Matter"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145505","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.96.145505","article-title":"Role of Interparticle Forces in the Formation of Random Loose Packing","volume":"96","author":"Dong","year":"2006","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2727","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.64.2727","article-title":"Random Loose Packings of Uniform Spheres and the Dilatancy Onset","volume":"64","author":"Onoda","year":"1990","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"863","DOI":"10.1088\/0022-3727\/2\/6\/311","article-title":"The density of random close packing of spheres","volume":"2","author":"Scott","year":"1969","journal-title":"J. Phys. D Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Scott, G. (1960). Packing of Spheres, Nature Publishing Group."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"990","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1093010","article-title":"Improving the Density of Jammed Disordered Packings Using Ellipsoids","volume":"303","author":"Donev","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198001-1","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.94.198001","article-title":"Experiments on Random Packings of Ellipsoids","volume":"94","author":"Man","year":"2005","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3640","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.79.3640","article-title":"Crystallization of non-Brownian Spheres under Horizontal Shaking","volume":"79","author":"Pouliquen","year":"1997","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"(2018, February 19). Hyundai NEXO Press Kit. Available online: https:\/\/www.hyundai.news\/eu\/press-kits\/0\/NEXO\/."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"(2018, February 19). Outline of the Mirai. Available online: https:\/\/www.toyota-europe.com\/new-cars\/mirai\/index\/specs."}],"container-title":["Energies"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1073\/12\/9\/1762\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:50:34Z","timestamp":1760187034000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1073\/12\/9\/1762"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,9]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,5]]}},"alternative-id":["en12091762"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/en12091762","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1073"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1996-1073"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,9]]}}}