{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,6]],"date-time":"2025-11-06T16:03:40Z","timestamp":1762445020880,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,2]],"date-time":"2020-05-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1588377600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Energies"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In passive solar buildings, energy can be stored using either sensible heat materials or latent heat materials. Phase change materials (PCM) can contribute to temperature control in passive solar buildings when melting occurs near to comfort temperature required for building\u2019s interior spaces. The use of finite element method (FEM) as a numerical methodology for solving the thermal problem associated with heat transfer in current building materials and PCMs make sense, as it is a well-known technique, generalized and dominated, however, still little applied to the domain of building physics. In this work, a solar model was developed and applied in order to simulate numerically the effect of solar radiation incidence on each face of the test cells (with different solar exposures) without neglecting the main objective of the recommended numerical simulation: the study of the action of PCM. During the experimental campaign, two test cells with distinct inner layers were used to evaluate the effect of solar radiation: (i) REFM test cell (without PCM) with a reference mortar; (ii) PCMM test cell (with PCM) with a PCM mortar. The temperatures monitored inside the REFM and PCMM test cells were compared with the values resulting from the numerical simulation, using FEM with 3D discretization and the explicit modeling of the solar radiation, and the obtained results revealed a significant coherence of values.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/en13092200","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,4]],"date-time":"2020-05-04T14:00:43Z","timestamp":1588600843000},"page":"2200","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["FEM Applied to Building Physics: Modeling Solar Radiation and Heat Transfer of PCM Enhanced Test Cells"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Ana","family":"Vaz S\u00e1","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CONSTRUCT-GEQUALTEC, Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1374-9427","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miguel","family":"Azenha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ISISE\u2014Institute for Sustainability and Innovation in Structural Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]},{"given":"A.S.","family":"Guimar\u00e3es","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CONSTRUCT-LFC, Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"J.M.P.Q.","family":"Delgado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CONSTRUCT-LFC, Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,2]]},"reference":[{"unstructured":"Lane, G.A. (1983). Solar Heat Storage: Latent Heat Materials, CRC Press.","key":"ref_1"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2012.02.031","article-title":"Thermal enhancement of plastering mortars with Phase Change Materials: Experimental and numerical approach","volume":"49","author":"Azenha","year":"2012","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2592","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2004.11.003","article-title":"Numerical analysis of a PCM thermal storage system with varying wall temperature","volume":"46","author":"Halawa","year":"2005","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.solener.2017.01.070","article-title":"Yearly energy performance of a photovoltaic-phase change material (PV-PCM) system in hot climate","volume":"146","author":"Hasan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sol. Energy"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.solener.2018.06.047","article-title":"How to enhance thermal energy storage effect of PCM in roofs with varying solar reflectance: Experimental and numerical assessment of a new roof system for passive cooling in different climate conditions","volume":"192","author":"Piselli","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sol. Energy"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1913","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2006.05.005","article-title":"Solar energy storage using phase change materials","volume":"11","author":"Kenisarin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2015.10.128","article-title":"Passive thermal control in residential buildings using phase change materials","volume":"55","author":"Kenisarin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2017.06.067","article-title":"Development and thermal performance of an expanded perlite-based phase change material wallboard for passive cooling in building","volume":"152","author":"Kong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1016\/S0360-1323(97)00009-7","article-title":"Investigation of the thermal performance of a passive solar test-room with wall latent heat storage","volume":"32","author":"Athienitis","year":"1997","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2008.11.022","article-title":"Experimental investigation of wallboard containing phase change material: Data for validation of numerical modeling","volume":"41","author":"Kuznik","year":"2009","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2018.04.036","article-title":"Integration of passive PCM technologies for netzero energy buildings","volume":"41","author":"Stritih","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.09.119","article-title":"Influence of adding phase change materials on the physical and mechanical properties of cement mortars","volume":"127","author":"Cunha","year":"2016","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2012.12.042","article-title":"Review of passive PCM latent heat thermal energy storage systems towards buildings\u2019 energy efficiency","volume":"59","author":"Soares","year":"2013","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2012.09.057","article-title":"Heat storage properties of the cement mortar incorporated with composite phase change material","volume":"103","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2014.09.003","article-title":"Assessing the integration of a thin phase change material (PCM) layer in a residential building wall for heat transfer reduction and management","volume":"137","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2013.03.048","article-title":"Experimental research on the use of phase change materials in perforated brick rooms for cooling storage","volume":"62","author":"Kong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2014.02.047","article-title":"Combined experimental and numerical evaluation of a prototype nano-PCM enhanced wallboard","volume":"131","author":"Biswas","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2017.11.027","article-title":"Study on the coupling heating system of floor radiation and sunspace based on energy storage technology","volume":"159","author":"Lu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdullah, A., Gassar, A., and Yun, G.Y. (2017). Energy Saving Potential of PCMs in Buildings under Future Climate Conditions. Appl. Sci., 7.","key":"ref_19","DOI":"10.3390\/app7121219"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.solener.2018.11.035","article-title":"Assessment of thermal performance of PCM in latent heat storage system for different applications","volume":"177","author":"Alnefaie","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sol. Energy"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2017.09.075","article-title":"Performance study on different location of double layers SSPCM wallboard in office building","volume":"158","author":"Zhu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bland, A., Khzouz, M., Statheros, T., and Gkanas, E.I. (2017). PCMs for Residential Building Applications: A Short Review Focused on Disadvantages and proposals for Future Development. Buildings, 7.","key":"ref_22","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings7030078"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2019.04.011","article-title":"Development of high performance PCM cement composites for passive solar buildings","volume":"194","author":"Bao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2018.09.008","article-title":"An innovative PCM system for thermal comfort improvement and energy demand reduction in building under different climate conditions","volume":"44","author":"Ahangari","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"unstructured":"Manie, J. (2019, June 15). DIANA TNO User\u2019s Manual\u2014Release 9.4.3. Available online: https:\/\/dianafea.com\/manuals\/d943\/Diana.html.","key":"ref_25"},{"unstructured":"Ozisik, M.N. (1993). Heat Conduction, Wiley. [2nd ed.].","key":"ref_26"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1004","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2010.01.012","article-title":"Development and validation of a new TRNSYS type for the simulation of external building walls containing PCM","volume":"42","author":"Kuznik","year":"2010","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"unstructured":"Rose, J., Lahme, A., Christensen, N., Heiselberg, P., and Hansen, M. (2020, February 15). Numerical Method for Calculation Latent Heat Storage in Constructions Containing PCM. Available online: https:\/\/www.ucviden.dk\/portal\/files\/7151416\/Numerical%20Method%20for%20calculation%20Latent%20Heat%20Storage%20in%20Constructions%20Containing%20PCM.pdf.","key":"ref_28"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1771","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2008.03.005","article-title":"Thermal storage and nonlinear heat-transfer characteristics of PCM wallboard","volume":"40","author":"Zhang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2012.02.010","article-title":"Experimental testing and numerical modelling of masonry wall solution with PCM incorporation: A passive construction solution","volume":"49","author":"Silva","year":"2012","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2015.10.131","article-title":"Experimental and numerical studies of hybrid PCM embedded in plastering mortar for enhanced thermal behaviour of buildings","volume":"94","author":"Kheradmand","year":"2016","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2015.11.013","article-title":"Optimal behavior of responsive residential demand considering hybrid phase change materials","volume":"163","author":"Kheradmand","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1115\/1.3450375","article-title":"Analysis of multidimensional conduction phase change via the enthalpy model","volume":"97","author":"Shamsundar","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Heat Transf."},{"unstructured":"Azenha, M. (2009). Numerical Simulation of the Structural Behavior of Concrete Since Its Early Ages. [Ph.D. Thesis, Faculty of Engineering University of Porto].","key":"ref_34"},{"unstructured":"Azenha, M. (2004). Comportamento do Bet\u00e3o nas Primeiras Idades. Fenomenologia e An\u00e1lise Termo-Din\u00e2mica. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Faculty of Engineering University of Porto].","key":"ref_35"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1086\/429689","article-title":"Modeling the Sun\u2019s Magnetic Field and Irradiance since 1713","volume":"625","author":"Wang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Astrophys. J."},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kopp, G., and Lean, J.L. (2011). A new, lower value of total solar irradiance: Evidence and climate significance. Geophys. Res. Lett., 38.","key":"ref_37","DOI":"10.1029\/2010GL045777"},{"unstructured":"Abrantes, V. (1986). An\u00e1lise Num\u00e9rica e Experimental do Comportamento T\u00e9rmico de Coberturas com Desv\u00e3o. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto].","key":"ref_38"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/S0038-092X(00)00053-0","article-title":"Atmospheric transparency, atmospheric turbidity and climatic parameters","volume":"69","author":"Rapti","year":"2000","journal-title":"Sol. Energy"},{"unstructured":"Koenders, E.A.B., and Breugel, K.V. (1995). Direct Solar Radiation on Inclined Surfaces, Report, Delft University of Technology.","key":"ref_40"},{"unstructured":"ISO (2007). Building Materials and Products\u2014Hygrothermal Properties\u2014Tabulated Design Values and Procedures for Determining Declared and Design Thermal Values, CEN.","key":"ref_41"},{"unstructured":"Minist\u00e9rio das Obras P\u00fablicas, Transportes e Comunica\u00e7\u00f5es (2006). Regulamento das Caracter\u00edsticas de Comportamento T\u00e9rmico dos Edif\u00edcios (RCCTE), DDi\u00e1rio da Rep\u00fablica. Decreto-Lei no. 80\/2006.","key":"ref_42"},{"unstructured":"(2020, March 03). LFC-FEUP. Available online: https:\/\/paginas.fe.up.pt\/~dec\/pt-pt\/laboratorios\/laboratorio-de-fisica-das-construcoes.","key":"ref_43"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1016\/j.solener.2011.02.017","article-title":"Experimental research on the use of micro-encapsulated Phase Change Materials to store solar energy in concrete floors and to save energy in Dutch houses","volume":"85","author":"Entrop","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sol. Energy"},{"unstructured":"Aguiar, R. (2020, February 15). INETI Synthetic Weather Data for Portugal, Available online: http:\/\/apps1.eere.energy.gov\/buildings\/energyplus\/cfm\/weather_data3.cfm\/region=6_europe_wmo_region_6\/country=PRT\/cname=Portugal.","key":"ref_45"},{"unstructured":"Freitas, V.P., Sousa, A., and Silva, J. (2003). Manual de Aplica\u00e7\u00e3o de Revestimentos Cer\u00e2micos, APICER\u2014Associa\u00e7\u00e3o Portuguesa da Ind\u00fastria de Cer\u00e2mica.","key":"ref_46"}],"container-title":["Energies"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1073\/13\/9\/2200\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T13:32:28Z","timestamp":1760362348000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1073\/13\/9\/2200"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,2]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,5]]}},"alternative-id":["en13092200"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/en13092200","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1073"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1996-1073"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,2]]}}}