{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,22]],"date-time":"2026-03-22T05:07:14Z","timestamp":1774156034954,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":20,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,15]],"date-time":"2021-01-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1610668800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PTDC\/ECI-EST\/29558\/2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PTDC\/ECI-EST\/29558\/2017"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SFRH\/BD\/129688\/2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BD\/129688\/2017"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDB\/04708\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04708\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Energies"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The reduction in operating and maintenance costs of wind farms is a fundamental element to guarantee the competitiveness and growth of the wind market. Wind turbines are highly dynamic structures prone to wear during their lifetime. Therefore, dynamic monitoring systems represent an excellent option to continuously evaluate their structural conditions. These systems allow early detection of damages, permit a proactive response, minimising downtime, and maximising productivity. In this context, the present paper describes the main results obtained with alternative instrumentation strategies tested in a 2.0 MW onshore wind turbine to reduce the costs of the monitoring equipment and at the same time ensure an adequate accuracy in structural condition evaluation. The data processing strategy encompasses the use of operational modal analysis combined with algorithms that deal with the particularities of operation of the wind turbines to continuously track the main vibration modes. After this automated online identification, the influence of the environmental and operating conditions on the tracked natural frequencies is mitigated, making the detection of abnormal variations of the natural frequencies possible, which might flag the appearance of damage. A database of continuously collected acceleration time series during one year is adopted to test the efficiency of alternative monitoring system layouts in detecting simulated damage scenarios. The tested alternative monitoring layouts present a varying number of sensors, alternative distributions in the wind turbine tower, and different sensor noise levels.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/en14020441","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,15]],"date-time":"2021-01-15T12:44:05Z","timestamp":1610714645000},"page":"441","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Vibration-Based Monitoring of Wind Turbines: Influence of Layout and Noise of Sensors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Pacheco","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Construct-ViBest, Faculty of Engineering (FEUP), University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Gustavo","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Construct-ViBest, Faculty of Engineering (FEUP), University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3340-9817","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Filipe","family":"Magalh\u00e3es","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Construct-ViBest, Faculty of Engineering (FEUP), University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Carlos","family":"Moutinho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Construct-ViBest, Faculty of Engineering (FEUP), University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7878-6224","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u00c1lvaro","family":"Cunha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Construct-ViBest, Faculty of Engineering (FEUP), University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cie.2012.02.002","article-title":"An overview of time-based and condition-based maintenance in industrial application","volume":"63","author":"Ahmad","year":"2012","journal-title":"Comput. Ind. Eng."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2595","DOI":"10.3390\/en7042595","article-title":"Wind Turbine Condition Monitoring: State-of-the-Art Review, New Trends, and Future Challenges","volume":"7","author":"Tchakoua","year":"2014","journal-title":"Energies"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1179\/174892406X163397","article-title":"Condition monitoring and prognosis of utility scale wind turbines","volume":"1","author":"Hyers","year":"2006","journal-title":"Energy Mater."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2017.10.059","article-title":"Real-time monitoring, prognosis, and resilient control for wind turbine systems","volume":"116","author":"Gao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1002\/we.437","article-title":"Structural health monitoring of wind turbines: Method and application to a HAWT","volume":"14","author":"Adams","year":"2011","journal-title":"Wind. Energy"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1431","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2010.08.001","article-title":"Explaining operational modal analysis with data from an arch bridge","volume":"25","author":"Cunha","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2018.02.030","article-title":"Continuous dynamic monitoring of an onshore wind turbine","volume":"164","author":"Oliveira","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2238","DOI":"10.1002\/stc.2238","article-title":"Vibration-based damage detection in a wind turbine using 1 year of data","volume":"25","author":"Oliveira","year":"2018","journal-title":"Struct. Control Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Overschee, P., and De Moor, B. (1996). Subspace Identification for Linear Systems. Springer Sci. Bus. Media, 254.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4613-0465-4"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1155\/2004\/523692","article-title":"The PolyMAX Frequency-Domain Method: A New Standard for Modal Parameter Estimation?","volume":"11","author":"Peeters","year":"2004","journal-title":"Shock Vib."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1177\/1475921714556568","article-title":"Structural health monitoring of offshore wind turbines using automated operational modal analysis","volume":"13","author":"Devriendt","year":"2014","journal-title":"Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2011.06.011","article-title":"Vibration based structural health monitoring of an arch bridge: From automated OMA to damage detection","volume":"28","author":"Cunha","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Moutinho, C., and Cunha, \u00c1. (2019, January 18\u201321). Contribution to new solutions of instrumentation of Civil structures for continuous dynamic monitoring, ViBest\/FEUP experience. Proceedings of the 14th International Workshop on Advanced Smart Materials and Smart Structures Technology (ANCRiSST 2019), Rome, Italy."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1785\/0220130091","article-title":"Performance of Several Low-Cost Accelerometers","volume":"85","author":"Evans","year":"2014","journal-title":"Seism. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johnson, R.A., and Wichern, D.W. (1988). Applied Multivariate Statistical Analysis, Prentice-Hall, Inc.","DOI":"10.2307\/2531616"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Oliveira, G. (2016). Vibration-Based Structural Health Monitoring of Wind Turbines. [Ph.D. Thesis, Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto]."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2015.04.017","article-title":"An investigation into the effect of scour on the natural frequency of an offshore wind turbine","volume":"101","author":"Prendergast","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2013.01.016","article-title":"Assessment of foundation design for offshore monopiles unprotected against scour","volume":"63","author":"Ibsen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Pelayo, F., L\u00f3pez-Aenlle, M., Fern\u00e1ndez-Canteli, A., and Cantieni, R. (2011). Operational Modal Analysis of Two Wind Turbines with Foundation Problems, Repositorio Institucional de la Universidad de Oviedo."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Larsen, T.J., and Hansen, A.M. (2007). How 2 HAWC2, the User\u2019s Manual, Ris\u00f8 National Laboratory Technical University of Denmark."}],"container-title":["Energies"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1073\/14\/2\/441\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:11:33Z","timestamp":1760159493000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1073\/14\/2\/441"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,15]]},"references-count":20,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1]]}},"alternative-id":["en14020441"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/en14020441","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1073"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1073","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,15]]}}}