{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,25]],"date-time":"2026-03-25T16:19:42Z","timestamp":1774455582705,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,24]],"date-time":"2021-03-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1616544000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Energies"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study proposes the time-varying nonlinear panel unit root test to investigate the convergence of ecological foot prints between the EU and candidate countries. Sixteen European countries (such as Albania, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sweden and Turkey) and analysis periods are selected according to data availability. This study proposes a cross-sectional Panel KSS with Fourier to test the convergence of the ecological footprints. Then, we combine this methodology with the rolling window method to take into account the time-varying stationarity of series. This study evaluated sub-components of ecological footprints separately and provided more comprehensive findings for the ecological footprint. According to empirical findings, this study proves that convergence or divergence does not show continuity over time. On the other side, this study points out the presence of divergence draws attention when considering the properties of the sub-components in general. As a result, this study shows that international policies by EU countries are generally accepted as successful to reduce ecological footprint, but these are not sufficient as expected. In this point, it is suggested to keep national policies to support international policies in the long term.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/en14071813","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,24]],"date-time":"2021-03-24T15:42:19Z","timestamp":1616600539000},"page":"1813","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Time-Varying Convergences of Environmental Footprint Levels between European Countries"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4168-2792","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Durmu\u015f \u00c7a\u011fr\u0131","family":"Y\u0131ld\u0131r\u0131m","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Economics, Tekirdag Nam\u0131k Kemal University, 59030 Tekirdag, Turkey"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4367-6652","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Seda","family":"Y\u0131ld\u0131r\u0131m","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Business Administration, Tekirdag Nam\u0131k Kemal University, 59030 Tekirdag, Turkey"}]},{"given":"Seyfettin","family":"Erdo\u011fan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Economics, Istanbul Medeniyet University, 34720 Istanbul, Turkey"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7534-4911","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"I\u015f\u0131l","family":"Demirta\u015f","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Economics, Giresun University, 28200 Giresun, Turkey"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5560-5101","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gualter","family":"Couto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Business and Economics and CEEAplA, University of Azores, 9500-321 Pionta Delgada, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1882-4801","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rui Alexandre","family":"Castanho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Applied Sciences, WSB University, 41-300 Dabrowa G\u00f3rnicza, Poland"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Global Footprint Network (GFN) (2021, January 10). Glossary. Available online: https:\/\/www.footprintnetwork.org\/resources\/glossary\/."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"341","article-title":"The dynamics of the ecological footprint concept","volume":"32","author":"Costanza","year":"2000","journal-title":"Ecol. Econ."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Wackernagel, M. (2002). What We Use and What We Have: Ecological Footprint and Ecological Capacity, Redifening Progress. Available online: https:\/\/edisciplinas.usp.br\/pluginfile.php\/49503\/mod_resource\/content\/1\/texto17.pdf."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6167","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-018-3993-8","article-title":"Convergence in CO2 emissions, carbon footprint and ecological footprint: Evidence from OECD countries","volume":"26","author":"Solarin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1080\/15239080500441095","article-title":"Exploring the application of the Ecological Footprint to sustainable consumption policy","volume":"7","author":"Barrett","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Environ. Policy Plan."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"European Environment Agency (EEA) (2021, January 10). Is Europe Living within the Limits of Our Planet? An Assessment of Europe\u2019s Environmental Footprints in Relation to Planetary Boundaries. Available online: https:\/\/www.eea.europa.eu\/publications\/is-europe-living-within-the-planets-limits."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2011.06.017","article-title":"Integrating Ecological, Carbon and Water footprint into a \u201cFootprint Family\u201d of indicators: Definition and role in tracking human pressure on the planet","volume":"16","author":"Gallia","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"European Environment Agency (EEA) (2021, January 09). The European Environment\u2014State and Outlook 2015: Synthesis Report, European Environment Agency, Copenhagen. Available online: https:\/\/www.kowi.de\/Portaldata\/2\/Resources\/horizon2020\/coop\/SOER-Synthesis-2015-EN.pdf."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"European Environment Agency (EEA) (2021, January 09). The European Environment\u2014State and Outlook 2020: Knowledge for Transition to a Sustainable Europe. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. Available online: https:\/\/www.eea.europa.eu\/publications\/soer-2020."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Vandermaesen, T., Humphries, R., Wackernagel, M., Murthy, A., and Mailhes, L. (2021, January 10). EU Overshoot Day Living beyond Nature\u2019s Limits. Available online: https:\/\/www.footprintnetwork.org\/content\/uploads\/2019\/05\/WWF_GFN_EU_Overshoot_Day_report.pdf."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Enders, W., and Lee, J. (July, January 30). Testing for a unit root with a nonlinear Fourier function. Proceedings of the Econometric Society 2004 Far Eastern Meetings, Seoul, Korea."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-0084.2011.00662.x","article-title":"A unit root test using a Fourier series to approximate smooth breaks","volume":"74","author":"Enders","year":"2012","journal-title":"Oxf. Bull. Econ. Stat."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3056","DOI":"10.1080\/03610918.2018.1473591","article-title":"A new nonlinear unit root test with Fourier function","volume":"48","year":"2019","journal-title":"Commun. Stat. Simul. Comput."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9892.00078","article-title":"Unit roots and smooth transitions","volume":"19","author":"Leybourne","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Time Ser. Anal."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2017.05.020","article-title":"Persistence of policy shocks to Ecological Footprint of the USA","volume":"80","author":"Ulucak","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2018.11.299","article-title":"Are shocks to ecological footprint in OECD countries permanent or temporary?","volume":"212","author":"Yilanci","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1429","DOI":"10.1080\/09603107.2014.925068","article-title":"Revisiting purchasing power parity in African countries: Panel stationary test with sharp and smooth breaks","volume":"24","author":"Chang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Financ. Econ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2018.01.064","article-title":"Persistence of policy shocks to an environmental degradation index: The case of ecological footprint in 128 developed and developing countries","volume":"89","author":"Solarin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"1","article-title":"A powerful test for linearity when the order of integration is unknown","volume":"12","author":"Harvey","year":"2008","journal-title":"Stud. Nonlinear Dyn. Econom."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2018.09.025","article-title":"Analyzing long lasting effects of environmental policies: Evidence from low, middle and high income economies","volume":"44","author":"Ozcan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2016.10.053","article-title":"Convergence of per capita CO2 emissions across the globe: Insights via wavelet analysis","volume":"75","author":"Ahmed","year":"2017","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1007\/s10640-010-9437-7","article-title":"The stochastic convergence of CO2 emissions: A long memory approach","volume":"49","author":"Barassi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Resour. Econ"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1177\/2277975216674073","article-title":"Testing the CO2 emissions convergence: Evidence from Asian countries","volume":"6","author":"Tiwari","year":"2017","journal-title":"IM Kozhikode Soc. Manag. Rev."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1007\/s10640-008-9260-6","article-title":"Club Convergence in Carbon Dioxide Emissions","volume":"44","author":"Panopoulou","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Resour. Econ."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.2307\/3440905","article-title":"Galton\u2019s Fallacy and Tests of the Convergence Hypothesis","volume":"95","author":"Quah","year":"1993","journal-title":"Scand. J. Econ."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104659","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eneco.2019.104659","article-title":"Stochastic convergence in per capita CO2 emissions: Evidence fromemerging economies, 1921\u20132014","volume":"86","author":"Churchill","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energy Econ."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1325","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-2921(95)00029-1","article-title":"Regional cohesion: Evidence and theories of regional growth and convergence","volume":"40","year":"1996","journal-title":"Eur. Econ. Rev."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eneco.2015.10.001","article-title":"Stochastic convergence in per capita CO2 emissions. An approach from nonlinear stationarity analysis","volume":"70","author":"Presno","year":"2018","journal-title":"Energy Econ."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1007\/s10640-005-6160-x","article-title":"Per Capita Carbon Dioxide Emissions: Convergence or Divergence?","volume":"33","author":"Aldy","year":"2006","journal-title":"Environ. Resour. Econ."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jce.2005.03.001","article-title":"Real and nominal stochastic convergence: Are the new EU members ready to join the Euro zone?","volume":"33","author":"Kutan","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Comp. Econ."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1022910701857","article-title":"Are CO2 emission levels converging among industrial countries?","volume":"24","author":"Strazicich","year":"2003","journal-title":"Environ. Resour. Econ."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1468","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2008.05.002","article-title":"New evidence on the convergence of per capita carbon dioxide emissions from panel seemingly unrelated regressions augmented Dickey\u2013Fuller tests","volume":"33","author":"Lee","year":"2008","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Bilalli, B., and Castanho, R.A. (2020, January 14\u201315). Sustainable Development and Renewable Energy Sources in Turkey. Proceedings of the Online International Congress of Energy, Economy and Security (ENSCON\u201920), Istanbul, Turkey."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2265","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eneco.2007.06.003","article-title":"Convergence in carbon dioxide emissions among industrialised countries revisited","volume":"30","year":"2008","journal-title":"Energy Econ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2020.107123","article-title":"Stochastic and club convergence of ecological footprint: An empirical analysis for different income group of countries","volume":"121","author":"Erdogan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shahbaz, M., and Balsalobre, D. (2019). Implications of environmental convergence: Continental evidence based on ecological footprint. Energy and Environmental Strategies in the Era of Globalization. Green Energy and Technology, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-06001-5"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35404","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-018-3457-1","article-title":"Is there deterministic, stochastic, and\/or club convergence in ecological footprint indicator among G20 countries?","volume":"25","author":"Bilgili","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1771","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-0262.2007.00811.x","article-title":"Transition modeling and econometric convergence tests","volume":"75","author":"Phillips","year":"2007","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101422","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2019.101422","article-title":"A multi-country convergence analysis of ecological footprint and its components","volume":"46","author":"Solarin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsci.2017.11.002","article-title":"Does convergence really matter for the environment? An application based on club convergence and on the ecological footprint concept for the EU countries","volume":"80","author":"Ulucak","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Policy"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1080\/17583004.2019.1640135","article-title":"Club convergence analysis of ecological and carbon footprint: Evidence from a cross-country analysis","volume":"10","author":"Haider","year":"2019","journal-title":"Carbon Manag."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"5","article-title":"Are suicide rate fluctuations transitory or permanent? Panel KSS unit root test with a fourier function through the sequential panel selection method","volume":"20","author":"Chang","year":"2017","journal-title":"ESPERA"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-4076(02)00202-6","article-title":"Testing for a unit root in the nonlinear STAR framework","volume":"112","author":"Kapetanios","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Econom."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.econlet.2009.03.018","article-title":"Testing for unit root in nonlinear heterogeneous panels","volume":"104","author":"Ucar","year":"2009","journal-title":"Econ. Lett."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1002\/jae.951","article-title":"A simple panel unit root test in the presence of cross-section dependence","volume":"22","author":"Pesaran","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Appl. Econom."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"899","DOI":"10.1002\/jae.751","article-title":"A general test for time dependence in parameters","volume":"19","author":"Becker","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Appl. Econom."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9892.2006.00478.x","article-title":"A stationarity test in the presence of an unknown number of smooth breaks","volume":"3","author":"Becker","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Time Ser. Anal."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.econlet.2012.04.081","article-title":"The flexible form and Dickey-Fuller type unit root tests","volume":"117","author":"Enders","year":"2012","journal-title":"Econ. Lett."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1111\/obes.12109","article-title":"A Simple Panel Unit-Root Test with Smooth Breaks in the Presence of a Multifactor Error Structure","volume":"78","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oxf. Bull. Econ. Stat."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.econmod.2016.12.003","article-title":"A panel stationarity test with gradual structural shifts: Re-investigate the international commodity price shocks","volume":"61","author":"Nazlioglu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Econ. Model."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1076","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jimonfin.2010.02.003","article-title":"Smooth breaks and non-linear mean reversion: Post-Bretton Woods real exchange rates","volume":"29","author":"Christopoulos","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Int. Money Financ."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1398","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eneco.2010.05.015","article-title":"Economic growth and energy consumption causal nexus viewed through a bootstrap rolling window","volume":"32","author":"Balcilar","year":"2010","journal-title":"Energy Econ."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jeconom.2004.09.007","article-title":"Small sample properties of forecasts from autoregressive models under structural breaks","volume":"129","author":"Pesaran","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Econom."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"2237","article-title":"Revisit Feldstein-Horioka puzzle: Evidence from Malaysia","volume":"31","author":"Tang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Econ. Bull."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v081.c01","article-title":"Rtadf: Testing for bubbles with EViews","volume":"81","author":"Caspi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Stat. Softw."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ansell, D., Gibson, F., and Salt, S. (2016). Agricultural land use policy in the European Union: A brief history and lessons learnt. Learning from Agri-Environment Schemes in Australia Investing in Biodiversity and Other Ecosystem Services on Farms, ANU Press.","DOI":"10.22459\/LFAESA.05.2016"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2664.2003.00868.x","article-title":"How effective are European agri-environment schemes in conserving and promoting biodiversity?","volume":"40","author":"Kleijn","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Appl. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"P\u00fclzl, H., Wydra, D., and Hogl, K. (2018). Piecemeal Integration: Explaining and Understanding 60 Years of European Union Forest Policy-Making. Forests, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/f9110719"}],"container-title":["Energies"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1073\/14\/7\/1813\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:40:33Z","timestamp":1760161233000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1073\/14\/7\/1813"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,24]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4]]}},"alternative-id":["en14071813"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/en14071813","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1073"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1073","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,24]]}}}