{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,20]],"date-time":"2026-01-20T07:49:32Z","timestamp":1768895372047,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,20]],"date-time":"2022-07-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1658275200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"CeBER R&amp;D","award":["UIDB\/05037\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/05037\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Energies"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Natural gas has returned to prominence in the agenda of European countries since the beginning of the invasion of Ukraine by Russia in 2022. However, natural gas is a fossil source with severe environmental implications. This paper aims to verify the impact of natural gas on carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions for a European panel from 1993 to 2018 for sixteen countries. An Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) model in the form of an unrestricted error correction model was used to identify the short-run impacts, the long-run elasticities, and the speed of adjustment of the model. The results indicate that in the short-run, natural gas has a negligible impact on CO2 emissions when faced with oil consumption (6.7 times less), whereas the consumption of renewables and hydroelectric energy proved to be able to decrease the CO2 emissions both in the short- and long-run. The elasticity of oil consumption is lower than the unit, indicating that efficiency gains have been achieved during the process of the energy transition to clean energy sources. If economies use non-renewable energy, governments must continue to prefer natural gas to oil. Renewables and hydroelectric consumption must be used to revert the path of CO2 emissions. Given the unstable scenario that has been caused by the War in Eastern Europe, politicians should focus on accelerating the transition from fossil to renewable energies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/en15145263","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,20]],"date-time":"2022-07-20T11:22:24Z","timestamp":1658316144000},"page":"5263","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["The Impact of Natural Gas, Oil, and Renewables Consumption on Carbon Dioxide Emissions: European Evidence"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4802-7873","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matheus","family":"Belucio","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Economy of Francesco (EoF) Academy, Center for Advanced Studies in Management and Economics (CEFAGE-UE), University of \u00c9vora, 7000-809 \u00c9vora, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Renato","family":"Santiago","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Management and Economics, University of Beira Interior, 6200-209 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6937-5420","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Alberto","family":"Fuinhas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Business and Economics Research (CeBER) and Faculty of Economics, University of Coimbra, 3004-512 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Luiz","family":"Braun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical Engineering Department, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florian\u00f3polis 88040-900, Brazil"},{"name":"Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Coimbra, 3030-194 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"Antunes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Management and Economics, University of Beira Interior, 6200-209 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Eurostat (2022, March 25). EU Energy Mix and Import Dependency. Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/eurostat\/statistics-explained\/index.php?title=EU_energy_mix_and_import_dependency#Natural_gas."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152052","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.152052","article-title":"Analysis of the efficiency and structure of energy consumption in the industrial sector in the European Union countries between 1995 and 2019","volume":"808","author":"Brodny","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131076","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2022.131076","article-title":"Renewable energy consumption in economic sectors in the EU-27. The impact on economics, environment and conventional energy sources. A 20-year perspective","volume":"345","author":"Tutak","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"European Parliament and Council of the European Union (2022, April 09). Regulation (EU) 2017\/1938 of the European Parliament and of the Council. Available online: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/en\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX:32017R1938."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Newbery, D. (2006). Electricity liberalization in Britain and the evolution of market design. Electricity Market Reform: An International Perspective, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-008045030-8\/50006-0"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sioshansi, F.P., and Pfaffenberger, W. (2006). Electricity Market Reform: An International Perspective, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1049\/cp:20062264"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-6451.00049","article-title":"The restructuring and privatization of Britain\u2019s CEGB\u2014Was it worth it?","volume":"45","author":"Newbery","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Ind. Econ."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2015.10.050","article-title":"Collateral effects of liberalization: Metering, losses, load profiles, and cost settlement in Spain\u2019s electricity system","volume":"94","year":"2016","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1630","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2004.12.013","article-title":"The liberalization of the Spanish gas market","volume":"34","year":"2006","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2244","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2004.05.003","article-title":"Liberalization, consumption heterogeneity, and the dynamics of energy prices","volume":"33","author":"Ferreira","year":"2005","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"European Commission (2022, April 26). Third Energy Package. Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/energy\/topics\/markets-and-consumers\/market-legislation\/third-energy-package_en."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"European Commission (2022, January 30). EU Energy Markets in Gas and Electricity\u2014State of Play of Implementation and Transposition. Available online: https:\/\/www.europarl.europa.eu\/meetdocs\/2009_2014\/documents\/itre\/dv\/a_itre_st_2009_14_eu_energy_markets_\/a_itre_st_2009_14_eu_energy_markets_en.pdf."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"European Parliament (2022, July 17). Mercado Interno da Energia. Available online: https:\/\/www.europarl.europa.eu\/factsheets\/pt\/sheet\/45\/mercado-interno-da-energia."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"149","article-title":"Harmoniza\u00e7\u00e3o, uniformiza\u00e7\u00e3o e unifica\u00e7\u00e3o das normas jur\u00eddicas: A integra\u00e7\u00e3o para o desenvolvimento do mercado de g\u00e1s natural","volume":"2","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. De Direito Do Petr\u00f3leo G\u00e1s E Energ."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eneco.2017.07.002","article-title":"European Union gas market development","volume":"66","author":"Baltensperger","year":"2017","journal-title":"Energy Econ."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2012.08.046","article-title":"Main drivers of natural gas prices in the Czech Republic after the market liberalization","volume":"52","author":"Gapko","year":"2013","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2015.12.016","article-title":"Market fundamentals, competition, and natural-gas prices","volume":"94","author":"Hulshof","year":"2016","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2016.08.076","article-title":"Natural gas consumption and economic growth: Panel evidence from OECD countries","volume":"114","author":"Destek","year":"2016","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2014.10.075","article-title":"Natural gas consumption and economic growth: The role of foreign direct investment, capital formation, and trade openness in Malaysia","volume":"42","author":"Solarin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1753-0237.2008.00142.x","article-title":"The supply of natural gas in the European Union\u2014Strategic issues","volume":"32","author":"Percebois","year":"2008","journal-title":"OPEC Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.econmod.2013.06.023","article-title":"Is electricity more important than natural gas? Partial liberalization of the Western European energy markets","volume":"35","author":"Golombek","year":"2013","journal-title":"Econ. Model."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"International Energy Agency (2022, April 14). The Role of Gas in Today\u2019s Energy Transitions. Available online: https:\/\/www.iea.org\/reports\/the-role-of-gas-in-todays-energy-transitions."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envdev.2013.02.004","article-title":"Will the introduction of renewable energy in Europe lead to CO2 reduction without nuclear energy?","volume":"6","author":"Samseth","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Dev."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20893","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-019-05388-4","article-title":"The impact of natural gas and renewable energy consumption on CO2 emissions and economic growth in two major emerging market economies","volume":"26","author":"Ummalla","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2017.03.030","article-title":"Economic impacts of natural gas flow disruptions between Russia and the EU","volume":"106","author":"Bouwmeester","year":"2017","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eneco.2017.06.006","article-title":"The effect of natural gas shortages on the Mexican economy","volume":"66","author":"Alcaraz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Energy Econ."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2015.12.278","article-title":"The relationship between natural gas consumption and economic growth in OPEC members","volume":"58","author":"Solarin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2015.10.053","article-title":"Energy efficiency and natural gas consumption in the context of economic development in the European Union","volume":"55","author":"Balitskiy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2015.11.038","article-title":"Natural gas consumption and economic development in China and Japan: An empirical examination of the Asian context","volume":"56","author":"Furuoka","year":"2016","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"998","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2015.07.005","article-title":"Natural gas consumption and economic growth nexus: Panel data analysis for GCC countries","volume":"51","author":"Ozturk","year":"2015","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2013.09.001","article-title":"Natural gas consumption and economic growth: Are we ready to natural gas price liberalization in Iran?","volume":"63","author":"Heidari","year":"2013","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2012.09.029","article-title":"Natural gas consumption and economic growth in Pakistan","volume":"18","author":"Shahbaz","year":"2013","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43800","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-022-18912-w","article-title":"The role of innovations and renewable energy consumption in reducing environmental degradation in OECD countries: An investigation for Innovation Claudia Curve","volume":"29","author":"Khan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.56556\/jescae.v1i2.11","article-title":"Critical Analysis of Energy Consumption and Its Impact on Countries Economic Growth: An empirical analysis base on Countries income level","volume":"1","author":"Jamil","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci. Econ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3399049","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/3399049","article-title":"Analyzing renewable and nonrenewable energy sources for environmental quality: Dynamic investigation in developing countries","volume":"2021","author":"Khan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Math. Probl. Eng."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Fuinhas, J.A., and Marques, A.C. (2019). The Extended Energy-Growth Nexus: Theory and Empirical Applications, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Fuinhas, J.A., and Marques, A.C. (2019). Energy\u2013growth nexus, domestic credit, and environmental sustainability: A panel causality analysis. The Extended Energy-Growth Nexus: Theory and Empirical Applications, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eneco.2016.01.013","article-title":"The role of globalization on the recent evolution of energy demand in India: Implications for sustainable development","volume":"55","author":"Shahbaz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Energy Econ."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eneco.2015.01.003","article-title":"The impact of renewable energy consumption to economic growth: A panel data application","volume":"53","year":"2016","journal-title":"Energy Econ."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2016.07.050","article-title":"Electricity consumption and economic growth in the GCC countries: Panel data analysis","volume":"98","author":"Osman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2013.08.081","article-title":"On energy consumption and GDP studies; A meta-analysis of the last two decades","volume":"29","author":"Menegaki","year":"2014","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2012.06.019","article-title":"Economic growth and its impact on the environment: A panel data analysis","volume":"24","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5920","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2011.06.046","article-title":"An overview of energy consumption of the globalized world economy","volume":"39","author":"Chen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6877","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2010.07.003","article-title":"Motivations driving renewable energy in European countries: A panel data approach","volume":"38","author":"Marques","year":"2010","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2009.06.034","article-title":"A survey of the electricity consumption-growth literature","volume":"87","author":"Payne","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2009.09.024","article-title":"A Literature survey on energy-growth nexus","volume":"38","author":"Ozturk","year":"2010","journal-title":"Energy Police"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3838","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2008.07.012","article-title":"The causality between energy consumption and economic growth in Turkey","volume":"36","author":"Erdal","year":"2008","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"401","article-title":"On the Relationship between Energy and GNP","volume":"3","author":"Kraft","year":"1978","journal-title":"J. Energy Dev."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"159","article-title":"Fatores que influenciam as visitas tur\u00edstico-religiosas ao Santu\u00e1rio de F\u00e1tima: Uma perspectiva econ\u00f4mica","volume":"33","author":"Belucio","year":"2019","journal-title":"Estud. De Relig."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1080\/09644016.2016.1191818","article-title":"The promissory note: COP 21 and the Paris Climate Agreement","volume":"25","author":"Christoff","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Politics"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20A","DOI":"10.2489\/jswc.71.1.20A","article-title":"Beyond COP 21: Potential and challenges of the \u201c4 per Thousand\u201d initiative","volume":"71","author":"Lal","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Soil Water Conserv."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"943","DOI":"10.1080\/14747731.2016.1163863","article-title":"Paris COP 21: Power that speaks the truth?","volume":"13","author":"Morgan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Globalizations"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jngse.2014.04.002","article-title":"What drives natural gas consumption in Europe? Analysis and projections","volume":"19","author":"Dilaver","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Energy Information Administration (2022, April 01). How Much Shale Gas is Produced in the United States?, Available online: https:\/\/www.eia.gov\/tools\/faqs\/faq.php?id=907&t=8."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Energy Information Administration (2022, April 05). World Shale Resources Assessments, Available online: https:\/\/www.eia.gov\/analysis\/studies\/worldshalegas\/."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.5547\/2160-5890.1.1.5","article-title":"The Influence of Shale Gas on U.S. Energy and Environmental Policy","volume":"1","author":"Jacoby","year":"2012","journal-title":"Econ. Energy Environ. Policy"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44030","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/7\/4\/044030","article-title":"Shale Gas Production: Potential versus Actual Greenhouse Gas Emissions","volume":"7","author":"Paltsev","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1007\/s10584-011-0061-5","article-title":"Methane and the greenhouse-gas footprint of natural gas from shale formations","volume":"106","author":"Howarth","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clim. Change"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pesaran, M.H. (2004). General Diagnostic Tests for Cross Section Dependence in Panels, Faculty of Economics, University of Cambridge. Cambridge Working Papers in Economics.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.572504"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1002\/jae.951","article-title":"A simple panel unit root test in the presence of cross-section dependence","volume":"22","author":"Pesaran","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Appl. Econom."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1251","DOI":"10.2307\/1913827","article-title":"Specification tests in econometrics","volume":"46","author":"Hausman","year":"1978","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Greene, W.H. (2000). Econometric Analysis, Prentice Hall. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Wooldridge, J.M. (2002). Econometric Analysis of Cross Section and Panel Data, The MIT Press."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1937.10503522","article-title":"The use of ranks to avoid the assumption of normality implicit in the analysis of variance","volume":"32","author":"Friedman","year":"1937","journal-title":"J. Am. Stat. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.2307\/2297111","article-title":"The Lagrange multiplier test and its applications to model specification in econometrics","volume":"47","author":"Breusch","year":"1980","journal-title":"Rev. Econ. Stud."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1162\/003465398557825","article-title":"Consistent covariance matrix estimation with spatially dependent panel data","volume":"80","author":"Driscoll","year":"1998","journal-title":"Rev. Econ. Stat."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1007\/s10644-018-9239-4","article-title":"The impact of globalization and economic freedom on economic growth: The case of the Latin America and Caribbean countries","volume":"53","author":"Santiago","year":"2020","journal-title":"Econ. Change Restruct."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.inteco.2019.09.001","article-title":"The impact of public capital stock on energy consumption: Empirical evidence from Latin America and the Caribbean region","volume":"160","author":"Koengkan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Econ."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2018.06.026","article-title":"Does natural gas consumption mitigate CO2 emissions: Testing the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis for 14 Asia-Pacific countries","volume":"94","author":"Dong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121533","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2021.121533","article-title":"Forecast of natural gas consumption in the Asia-Pacific region using a fractional-order incomplete gamma grey model","volume":"237","author":"Xiong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94008","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/9\/9\/094008","article-title":"The effect of natural gas supply on US renewable energy and CO2 emissions","volume":"9","author":"Shearer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45903","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4955090","article-title":"The relationship among oil and coal consumption, carbon dioxide emissions, and economic growth in BRICTS countries","volume":"8","author":"Bildirici","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Renew. Sustain. Energy"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnucene.2020.103425","article-title":"Reducing CO2 emissions in OECD countries: Do renewable and nuclear energy matter?","volume":"126","author":"Saidi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prog. Nucl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2017.03.111","article-title":"Exploring the relationship among CO2 emissions, real GDP, energy consumption and tourism in the EU and candidate countries: Evidence from panel models robust to heterogeneity and cross-sectional dependence","volume":"77","author":"Dogan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."}],"container-title":["Energies"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1073\/15\/14\/5263\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:54:46Z","timestamp":1760140486000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1073\/15\/14\/5263"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,20]]},"references-count":74,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7]]}},"alternative-id":["en15145263"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/en15145263","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1073"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1073","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,20]]}}}