{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T02:19:42Z","timestamp":1760149182251,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,4]],"date-time":"2023-07-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1688428800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia (FCT)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDB\/04077\/2020","PN-III-P4-ID-PCE-2020-0008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04077\/2020","PN-III-P4-ID-PCE-2020-0008"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006595","name":"Romanian Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research, Development and Innovation Funding\u2014UEFISCDI","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDB\/04077\/2020","PN-III-P4-ID-PCE-2020-0008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04077\/2020","PN-III-P4-ID-PCE-2020-0008"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006595","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Energies"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The need for reducing fossil fuel consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in internal combustion engines has raised the opportunity for the use of renewable energy sources. For the progressive replacement of fossil fuels like diesel, those derived from the sustainable management of forest resources may be a good option. In Portugal, pine trees (pinus pinaster) are among the most widely cultivated tree species. Turpentine can be extracted from their sap without harming the tree. Turpentine is known to be a good fuel with a lower viscosity than regular diesel but with a comparable caloric value, boiling point and ignition characteristics, although it is not widely used as a compression ignition fuel. Moreover, recent research has highlighted the possibility of substantially increasing the turpentine yield through biotechnology, bringing it closer to economic viability. The present study investigates the performance, pollutant emissions and fuel consumption of a 1.6 L four-cylinder direct-injection diesel engine operating with several blends of commercial diesel fuel and turpentine obtained from pine trees. The aim of this study was to assess whether it would be possible to maintain or even improve the performance, fuel consumption and GHG and pollutant emissions (HC, NOx, CO and PM) of the engine with the partial incorporation of this biofuel. Turpentine blends of up to 30% in substitution of regular diesel fuel were tested. The main novelties of the present work are related to (i) the careful testing of a still-insufficiently studied fuel that could gain economical attractiveness with the recent developments in yield improvement through biotechnology and (ii) the tests conducted under fixed engine load positions typical of road and highway conditions. The addition of this biofuel only slightly impacted the engine performance parameters. However, a slightly positive effect was observed in terms of torque, with an increase of up to 7.9% at low load for the 15T85D mixture and 6.8% at high load being observed. Power registered an increase of 9% for the 15T85D mixture at low speed and an increase of 5% for the 30T70D mixture at high speed when compared to the reference fuel (commercial diesel fuel). While the efficiency and fossil GHG emissions were improved with the incorporation of turpentine, it had a mixed effect on polluting emissions such as unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and smoke (PM) and a negative effect on nitrogen oxides (NOx). NOx emissions increased by 30% for high loads and 20% for low loads, mainly as an indirect effect of the improvement in the engine performance and not so much as a consequence of the marginally higher oxygen content of turpentine relative to commercial diesel fuel.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/en16135150","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,5]],"date-time":"2023-07-05T00:37:28Z","timestamp":1688517448000},"page":"5150","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Turpentine as an Additive for Diesel Engines: Experimental Study on Pollutant Emissions and Engine Performance"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3383-5800","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Robert M\u0103d\u0103lin","family":"Chivu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Thermal Systems and Automotive Engineering, \u201cDunarea de Jos\u201d University, 800001 Galati, Romania"},{"name":"Mechanical Engineering and Resource Sustainability Center (MEtRICs), Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, Campus Azur\u00e9m, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2163-8030","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jorge","family":"Martins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical Engineering and Resource Sustainability Center (MEtRICs), Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, Campus Azur\u00e9m, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Florin","family":"Popescu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Thermal Systems and Automotive Engineering, \u201cDunarea de Jos\u201d University, 800001 Galati, Romania"}]},{"given":"Krisztina","family":"Uzuneanu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Thermal Systems and Automotive Engineering, \u201cDunarea de Jos\u201d University, 800001 Galati, Romania"}]},{"given":"Ion V.","family":"Ion","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Thermal Systems and Automotive Engineering, \u201cDunarea de Jos\u201d University, 800001 Galati, Romania"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0940-519X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Margarida","family":"Goncalves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical Engineering and Resource Sustainability Center (MEtRICs), Department of Science and Technology of Biomass, Faculty of Science and Technology, NOVA University of Lisbon, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Teodor-Cezar","family":"Cod\u0103u","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fibrenamics\u2013Institute for Innovation in Fiber-Based Materials and Composites, Center for Textile Science and Technology, University of Minho, Campus de Azur\u00e9m, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Elena","family":"Onofrei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Industrial Design and Bbusiness Management, Technical University \u201cGheorghe Asachi\u201d of Iasi, 700050 Ia\u0219i, Romania"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0252-9413","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francisco P.","family":"Brito","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical Engineering and Resource Sustainability Center (MEtRICs), Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, Campus Azur\u00e9m, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1618","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2022.09.430","article-title":"Production of third generation bio-fuel through thermal cracking process by utilizing Covid-19 plastic wastes","volume":"72","author":"Ramalingam","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123641","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.123641","article-title":"The analysis of similarities between the European Union countries in terms of the level and structure of the emissions of selected gases and air pollutants into the atmosphere","volume":"279","author":"Brodny","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2019.01.086","article-title":"The effect of bio-derived additives on fatty acid methyl esters for improved biodiesel cold flow properties","volume":"242","author":"Senra","year":"2019","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiec.2021.04.037","article-title":"Optimization of sorbitan monooleate and \u03b3-Al2O3 nanoparticles as cold-flow improver in B30 biodiesel blend using response surface methodology (RSM)","volume":"99","author":"Fathurrahman","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Ind. Eng. Chem."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuproc.2015.01.041","article-title":"Biodiesel production from mixtures of waste fish oil, palm oil and waste frying oil: Optimization of fuel properties","volume":"133","author":"Guadix","year":"2015","journal-title":"Fuel Process. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2005.06.001","article-title":"Biodiesel as an alternative motor fuel: Production and policies in the European Union","volume":"12","author":"Bozbas","year":"2008","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biombioe.2012.02.003","article-title":"A life cycle assessment of biodiesel production from winter rape grown in Southern Europe","volume":"40","author":"Gasol","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biomass-Bioenergy"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/0379-0738(94)90298-4","article-title":"Turpentine poisoning: A case report","volume":"65","author":"Pande","year":"1994","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2007.04.019","article-title":"Investigation of purified sulfate turpentine on engine performance and exhaust emission","volume":"87","author":"Alma","year":"2008","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3603","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2010.04.050","article-title":"Effects of turpentine and gasoline-like fuel obtained from waste lubrication oil on engine performance and exhaust emission","volume":"35","author":"Arpa","year":"2010","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116500","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2019.116500","article-title":"Pine oil-soapnut oil methyl ester blends: A hybrid biofuel approach to completely eliminate the use of diesel in a twin cylinder off-road tractor diesel engine","volume":"262","author":"Venkatesan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117645","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2020.117645","article-title":"Impact of oxyfunctionalized turpentine on emissions from a Euro 6 diesel engine","volume":"201","author":"Ramos","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Sahay, S. (2022). Handbook of Biofuels, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Basshuysen, R., and Sch\u00e4fer, F. (2016). Internal Combustion Engine Handbook, SAE International. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.4271\/R-434"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2009.09.010","article-title":"Performance and exhaust emission of turpentine oil powered direct injection diesel engine","volume":"35","author":"Anand","year":"2010","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2356","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2005.12.003","article-title":"Experimental investigation of control of NOx emissions in biodiesel-fueled compression ignition engine","volume":"31","author":"Agarwal","year":"2006","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"75","article-title":"Testing of three-fuel mixture in a four-stroke single cylinder direct injection diesel engine","volume":"37","author":"Kumaran","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trans. Famena"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1007\/s13762-016-1147-4","article-title":"Performance and pollutants analysis on diesel engine using blends of Jatropha Biodiesel and Mineral Turpentine as fuel","volume":"14","author":"Karikalan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2016.08.023","article-title":"Effect on direct injection naturally aspirated diesel engine characteristics fuelled by pine oil, ceiba pentandra methyl ester compared with diesel","volume":"48","author":"Panneerselvam","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2013.05.061","article-title":"Combustion performance and emission characteristics study of pine oil in a diesel engine","volume":"57","author":"Vallinayagam","year":"2013","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2016.09.090","article-title":"Combustion performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine under low-temperature combustion of pine oil\u2013diesel blends","volume":"128","author":"Huang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"(2023, May 30). Distillation. Available online: https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/summary\/distillation."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2021.10.372","article-title":"Potential utilization of turpentine oil as an alternative fuel","volume":"63","author":"Yadav","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105530","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2022.105530","article-title":"Characterization of Turpentine nanoemulsion and assessment of its antibiofilm potential against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"166","author":"Merghni","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Panithasan, M.S. (2020). Exploring the Preparation and Usage of Low Viscous Pine Oil and Rice Husk Nano Additives in a CRDI Engine under the Effect of Water Emulsion, SAE. SAE Technical Paper.","DOI":"10.4271\/2020-01-2128"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Gobalakichenin, D., and Gnanamoorthi, V. (2019). Assessing the Combined Outcome of Rice Husk Nano Additive and Water Injection Method on the Performance, Emission and Combustion Characters of the Low Viscous Pine Oil in a Diesel Engine, SAE. SAE Technical Paper."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"042075","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/912\/4\/042075","article-title":"Performance and emission characteristics of CI engine fuelled with turpentine oil-diesel blend with diethyl ether as additives","volume":"912","author":"Nanditta","year":"2020","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2020.10.026","article-title":"Oxyfunctionalized turpentine: Evaluation of properties as automotive fuel","volume":"162","author":"Ballesteros","year":"2020","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2023, June 22). ICSC 1561-DIESEL FUEL No. 2. Available online: https:\/\/www.ilo.org\/dyn\/icsc\/showcard.display?p_lang=en&p_card_id=1561&p_version=2."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2023, June 22). ICSC 1063-TURPENTINE. Available online: https:\/\/www.ilo.org\/dyn\/icsc\/showcard.display?p_lang=en&p_card_id=1063&p_version=2."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2023, May 30). Telma. Available online: https:\/\/pt.telma.com\/applications\/industriel."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2023, May 30). Kern. Available online: https:\/\/docs.rs-online.com\/a64e\/0900766b81683823.pdf."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Index, H. (2023, June 22). Datasheet Thermo\/Hygro\/Barometer. Available online: https:\/\/docs.rs-online.com\/1164\/0900766b81599e70.pdf."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1177\/14680874211047743","article-title":"Evaluating the outcomes of a single-cylinder CRDI engine operated by lemon peel oil under the influence of DTBP, rice husk nano additive and water injection","volume":"24","author":"Panithasan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Engine Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2017.09.055","article-title":"Influences of dual bio-fuel (Jatropha biodiesel and turpentine oil) on single cylinder variable compression ratio diesel engine","volume":"115","author":"Dubey","year":"2018","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Panithasan, M.S., Malairajan, M., Balusamy, M., and Venkadesan, G. (2021). Evaluating the Engine Emission Outcomes from a CRDI Engine Operated with Low Viscous Bio-Oil Blends under the Influence of Diethyl Ether, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-15-9678-0_24"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2012.11.039","article-title":"Influence of 1-butanol addition on diesel combustion with palm oil methyl ester\/gas oil blends","volume":"61","author":"Yoshimoto","year":"2013","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martins, J., and Brito, F.P. (2020). Alternative Fuels for Internal Combustion Engines. Energies, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/en13164086"}],"container-title":["Energies"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1073\/16\/13\/5150\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:05:49Z","timestamp":1760126749000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1073\/16\/13\/5150"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,4]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7]]}},"alternative-id":["en16135150"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/en16135150","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1073"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1996-1073"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,4]]}}}