{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,7]],"date-time":"2026-02-07T00:20:33Z","timestamp":1770423633077,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,11]],"date-time":"2025-01-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736553600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)","award":["2022.12799.BD"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022.12799.BD"]}]},{"name":"Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)","award":["FCT\/UIDB\/ECI\/04450\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FCT\/UIDB\/ECI\/04450\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)","award":["UIDB\/00481\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/00481\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)","award":["UIDP\/00481\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/00481\/2020"]}]},{"name":"RISCO\u2014The Aveiro Research Centre for Risks and Sustainability in Construction, University of Aveiro, Portugal","award":["2022.12799.BD"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022.12799.BD"]}]},{"name":"RISCO\u2014The Aveiro Research Centre for Risks and Sustainability in Construction, University of Aveiro, Portugal","award":["FCT\/UIDB\/ECI\/04450\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FCT\/UIDB\/ECI\/04450\/2020"]}]},{"name":"RISCO\u2014The Aveiro Research Centre for Risks and Sustainability in Construction, University of Aveiro, Portugal","award":["UIDB\/00481\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/00481\/2020"]}]},{"name":"RISCO\u2014The Aveiro Research Centre for Risks and Sustainability in Construction, University of Aveiro, Portugal","award":["UIDP\/00481\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/00481\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Center for Mechanical Technology and Automation (TEMA)","award":["2022.12799.BD"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022.12799.BD"]}]},{"name":"Center for Mechanical Technology and Automation (TEMA)","award":["FCT\/UIDB\/ECI\/04450\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FCT\/UIDB\/ECI\/04450\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Center for Mechanical Technology and Automation (TEMA)","award":["UIDB\/00481\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/00481\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Center for Mechanical Technology and Automation (TEMA)","award":["UIDP\/00481\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/00481\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Energies"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The integration of phase-change materials (PCMs) into thermal energy storage systems offers significant potential for reducing energy consumption and improving thermal comfort, crucial issues for achieving sustainable building stocks. Nevertheless, the performance of PCM-based systems is strongly influenced by the container geometry. Among the various forms of incorporating PCMs into building applications, macroencapsulation is the most versatile and is, therefore, widely used. Herewith, this paper analyzes the impact of macrocapsule geometry on PCM thermal performance. Thermal properties of the material were first tested using Differential Scanning Calorimetry at five heating\/cooling rates to evaluate its influence on phase-change temperatures and enthalpy. Then, an experimental setup evaluated four macrocapsule geometries on the enclosed PCM behavior during charging and discharging processes. The PCM characterization revealed that the slowest-tested rate minimized the supercooling effect. Analysis across different macrocapsule geometries showed that sectioning the contact surface improved heat transfer efficiency by fully mobilizing the PCM and reducing phase-change times. Conversely, double-layered geometry designs hindered heat transfer, presenting challenges in completing PCM charging and discharging. These findings suggest that optimizing its performance is a necessary direction for further research, which may include adjusting the PCM operating temperature range across layers or redesigning the geometry to misalign contact surfaces.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/en18020303","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,13]],"date-time":"2025-01-13T05:40:40Z","timestamp":1736746840000},"page":"303","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Effect of Macrocapsule Geometry on PCM Performance for Thermal Regulation in Buildings"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0153-8606","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Margarida","family":"Gon\u00e7alves","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CERIS-Civil Engineering Research and Innovation for Sustainability, Civil Engineering Department, University of Aveiro, Campus Universit\u00e1rio de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4324-7006","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ant\u00f3nio","family":"Figueiredo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CERIS-Civil Engineering Research and Innovation for Sustainability, Civil Engineering Department, University of Aveiro, Campus Universit\u00e1rio de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9535-3284","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"German","family":"Vela","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CERIS-Civil Engineering Research and Innovation for Sustainability, Civil Engineering Department, University of Aveiro, Campus Universit\u00e1rio de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2776-468X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Filipe","family":"Rebelo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CERIS-Civil Engineering Research and Innovation for Sustainability, Civil Engineering Department, University of Aveiro, Campus Universit\u00e1rio de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9846-6081","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ricardo M. S. F.","family":"Almeida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, Polytechnic Institute of Viseu, School of Technology and Management, Campus Polit\u00e9cnico de Repeses, 3504-510 Viseu, Portugal"},{"name":"Institute of R&D in Structures and Construction-LFC (CONSTRUCT-LFC), Faculty of Engineering (FEUP), University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias s\/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6190-1238","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M\u00f3nica S. A.","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TEMA-Centre for Mechanical Technology and Automation, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Aveiro, Campus Universit\u00e1rio de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"},{"name":"LASI-Intelligent Systems Associate Laboratory, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5456-1642","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Romeu","family":"Vicente","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CERIS-Civil Engineering Research and Innovation for Sustainability, Civil Engineering Department, University of Aveiro, Campus Universit\u00e1rio de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moghaddam, S.A., Serra, C., da Silva, M.G., and Sim\u00f5es, N. (2023). Comprehensive Review and Analysis of Glazing Systems towards Nearly Zero-Energy Buildings: Energy Performance, Thermal Comfort, Cost-Effectiveness, and Environmental Impact Perspectives. Energies, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/en16176283"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120709","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2024.120709","article-title":"Passive energy-saving design strategy and realization on high window-wall ratio buildings in subtropical regions","volume":"229","author":"Xie","year":"2024","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2021.111184","article-title":"A critical review of fenestration\/window system design methods for high performance buildings","volume":"248","author":"Feng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118689","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2022.118689","article-title":"Creating glazed facades performance map based on energy and thermal comfort perspective for office building design strategies in Asian hot-humid climate zone","volume":"311","author":"Hwang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reddy, V.J., Hariram, N.P., Ghazali, M.F., and Kumarasamy, S. (2024). Pathway to Sustainability: An Overview of Renewable Energy Integration in Building Systems. Sustainability, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/su16020638"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.3390\/architecture3020013","article-title":"Enhancing Occupants\u2019 Thermal Comfort in Buildings by Applying Solar-Powered Techniques","volume":"3","author":"Irfeey","year":"2023","journal-title":"Architecture"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2014.11.031","article-title":"Combining thermal energy storage with buildings\u2014A review","volume":"42","author":"Heier","year":"2015","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2020.102122","article-title":"Incorporation of phase change materials into building envelope for thermal comfort and energy saving: A comprehensive analysis","volume":"36","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2017.11.005","article-title":"Review of latent heat thermal energy storage for improved material stability and effective load management","volume":"15","author":"Reddy","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Energy Storage"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104687","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2022.104687","article-title":"Simulation of melting and solidification processes of organic phase change materials used in storing heat energy in multi-layers heat exchanger","volume":"50","author":"Asadi","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Energy Storage"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2011.08.025","article-title":"Review on thermal energy storage with phase change materials (PCMs) in building applications","volume":"92","author":"Zhou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2018.08.030","article-title":"A review on macro-encapsulated phase change material for building envelope applications","volume":"144","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108597","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2023.108597","article-title":"A perspective on Phase Change Material encapsulation: Guidance for encapsulation design methodology from low to high-temperature thermal energy storage applications","volume":"72","author":"Palacios","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Energy Storage"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116555","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2021.116555","article-title":"A comprehensive review on sub-zero temperature cold thermal energy storage materials, technologies, and applications: State of the art and recent developments","volume":"288","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2024.111294","article-title":"Numerical simulation of various PCM container configurations for solar dryer application","volume":"86","author":"Manikandan","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Energy Storage"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102452","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2021.102452","article-title":"A review on container geometry and orientations of phase change materials for solar thermal systems","volume":"36","author":"Punniakodi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Energy Storage"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1571","DOI":"10.1007\/s00231-018-02534-5","article-title":"Analysis of heat transfer in latent heat thermal energy storage using a flexible PCM container","volume":"55","author":"Park","year":"2019","journal-title":"Heat Mass Transf."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icheatmasstransfer.2022.106237","article-title":"The influence of energy storage container geometry on the melting and solidification of PCM","volume":"137","author":"Hekmat","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2022.120108","article-title":"Geometry effect of phase change material container on waste heat recovery enhancement","volume":"327","author":"Qin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"oiab006","DOI":"10.1093\/ooenergy\/oiab006","article-title":"Optimizing the shape of PCM container to enhance the melting process","volume":"1","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Oxf. Open Energy"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112529","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2024.112529","article-title":"Numerical study of PCM melting performance in a rectangular container with various longitudinal fin structures","volume":"94","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Energy Storage"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103975","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2022.103975","article-title":"Dynamic melting of encapsulated PCM in various geometries driven by natural convection of surrounding air: A modelling-based parametric study","volume":"48","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Energy Storage"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111071","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2024.111071","article-title":"Experimental study on charging and discharging behavior of PCM encapsulations for thermal energy storage of concentrating solar power system","volume":"85","author":"Issa","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Energy Storage"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2017.12.073","article-title":"Adjustment of thermal behavior by changing the shape of PCM inclusions in concrete blocks","volume":"158","author":"Erlbeck","year":"2018","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dibe.2023.100187","article-title":"Recent advancements and future trends in 3D concrete printing using waste materials","volume":"16","author":"Tu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Dev. Built Environ."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"RUBITHERM\u00ae (2024, October 15). Data Sheet\u2014RT25HC. Available online: https:\/\/www.rubitherm.eu\/media\/products\/datasheets\/Techdata_-RT25HC_EN_09102020.PDF."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105979","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2023.105979","article-title":"Thermal and acoustic performance evaluation of 3D-Printable PLA materials","volume":"67","author":"Islam","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"UltiMaker (2024, October 15). PLA for S Series. Available online: https:\/\/ultimaker.com\/materials\/s-series-pla\/."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2014.08.010","article-title":"Thermal behavior of cement based plastering mortar containing hybrid microencapsulated phase change materials","volume":"84","author":"Kheradmand","year":"2014","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103876","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2021.103876","article-title":"Study of a thermally enhanced mortar incorporating phase change materials for overheating reduction in buildings","volume":"46","author":"Rebelo","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Energy Storage"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applthermaleng.2017.02.021","article-title":"Investigating the impact of Cp-T values determined by DSC on the PCM-CFD model","volume":"117","author":"Iten","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Therm. Eng."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109032","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2023.109032","article-title":"Optimization of DSC measurements for organic phase change materials","volume":"73","author":"Christy","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Energy Storage"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tca.2012.04.027","article-title":"Enthalpy and apparent specific heat capacity of the binary solution during the melting process: DSC modeling","volume":"541","author":"Kousksou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Thermochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2015.07.085","article-title":"DSC test error of phase change material (PCM) and its influence on the simulation of the PCM floor","volume":"87","author":"Feng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1241","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2014.01.040","article-title":"Biological variability in biomechanical engineering research: Significance and meta-analysis of current modeling practices","volume":"47","author":"Cook","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ko\u015bny, J., Thakkar, J., Kamidollayev, T., Sobkowicz, M.J., Trelles, J.P., Schmid, C., Phan, S., Annavajjala, S., and Horwath, P. (2023). Dynamic Thermal Performance Analysis of PCM Products Used for Energy Efficiency and Internal Climate Control in Buildings. Buildings, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings13061516"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1258","DOI":"10.1002\/er.1443","article-title":"Determination of the enthalpy of PCM as a function of temperature using a heat-flux DSC-A study of different measurement procedures and their accuracy","volume":"32","author":"Mehling","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Energy Res."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Ukrainczyk, N., Kurajica, S., and \u0160ipu\u0161i\u00e6, J. (2010). Thermophysical Comparison of Five Commercial Paraffin Waxes as Latent Heat Storage Materials. Chem. Biochem. Eng. Q., 24."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126745","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2023.126745","article-title":"Thermophysical characterization of paraffin-based PCMs for low temperature thermal energy storage applications for buildings","volume":"269","author":"Soares","year":"2023","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114837","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2024.114837","article-title":"Thermal performance evaluation of a light steel framing building with macroencapsulated phase change materials in a Mediterranean climate","volume":"323","author":"Figueiredo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101826","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2020.101826","article-title":"Towards a better analytical modelling of the thermodynamic behaviour of phase change materials","volume":"32","author":"Thonon","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Energy Storage"}],"container-title":["Energies"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1073\/18\/2\/303\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T10:27:04Z","timestamp":1759919224000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1073\/18\/2\/303"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,11]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]}},"alternative-id":["en18020303"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/en18020303","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1073"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1073","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,11]]}}}