{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T05:43:44Z","timestamp":1777873424222,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,15]],"date-time":"2025-02-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1739577600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"FCT","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2021.07535.BD"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021.07535.BD"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"FCT","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDB\/00151\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/00151\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"FCT","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDP\/00151\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/00151\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"C-MAST","award":["2021.07535.BD"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021.07535.BD"]}]},{"name":"C-MAST","award":["UIDB\/00151\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/00151\/2020"]}]},{"name":"C-MAST","award":["UIDP\/00151\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/00151\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Energies"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The search for alternative fuels is driven by increasing environmental and health concerns across the globe. Water-in-diesel emulsions (WiDEs) have been explored over the years as a potential fuel for diesel engines to mitigate emissions of greenhouse gases, especially nitrogen oxides and smoke. Researchers have been developing and testing different formulations of emulsified fuels with the common goal of stabilizing the mixture and minimizing pollutant emissions without significantly compromising engine performance. In this work, a novel approach is taken by developing a hydrophilic emulsion formulation optimized for engine operating temperatures, overcoming the storage-related stability issues that most studies focus on. Two different mixtures of WiDE were heated and supplied to a Hatz 1B40 single-cylinder diesel engine. The engine was coupled to an eddy current dynamometer to measure speed, torque, and power values. Emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrocarbons (HCs), nitric oxide (NO), and oxygen (O2) were measured by an AVL DiGas 1000 exhaust gas analyzer. Smoke emissions were measured by an AVL DiSmoke 480. This study represents a contribution to the field of alternative fuels for diesel engines by providing experimental evidence that formulating WiDE for operating temperatures can be advantageous and significantly improve thermal efficiency and reduce emissions of NO and smoke at specific engine operating conditions, with a maximum reduction of 46.86% for NO emissions and a maximum reduction of 83.67% for smoke emissions obtained when compared to diesel.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/en18040934","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,17]],"date-time":"2025-02-17T12:36:57Z","timestamp":1739795817000},"page":"934","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Investigation of Water-in-Diesel Emulsion Behavior Formulated for Performance Conditions in a Single-Cylinder Diesel Engine"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2978-3809","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Mechanical and Aerospace Sciences and Technologies (C-MAST), University of Beira Interior, 6200-358 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Francisco","family":"Br\u00f3jo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Aerospace Sciences, University of Beira Interior, 6200-358 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8911-245X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rog\u00e9rio","family":"Ser\u00f4dio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics, University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Ser\u00f4dio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Energy Safety Research Institute, Swansea University, Swansea SA1 8EN, UK"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1346","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psep.2024.06.012","article-title":"Ammonia as a Potential Green Dual Fuel in Diesel Engines: A Review","volume":"188","author":"Jayabal","year":"2024","journal-title":"Process Saf. Environ. Prot."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127940","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2023.127940","article-title":"The Combined Effect of Water and Nanoparticles on Diesel Engine Powered by Biodiesel and Its Blends with Diesel: A Review","volume":"343","author":"Jin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105094","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csite.2024.105094","article-title":"Experimental Investigation of Performance, Emission, and Combustion Characteristics of a Diesel Engine Using Blends of Waste Cooking Oil-Ethanol Biodiesel with MWCNT Nanoparticles","volume":"61","author":"Sonachalam","year":"2024","journal-title":"Case Stud. Therm. Eng."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2024.141257","article-title":"Investigation of the Effect of Different Structure Parameters and Operating Factors on the Integrated Exhaust Aftertreatment System for Diesel Engines and Parameter Importance Analysis","volume":"447","author":"Liao","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27394","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2023.03.251","article-title":"A Review of Performance and Emissions of Diesel Engine Operating on Dual Fuel Mode with Hydrogen as Gaseous Fuel","volume":"48","author":"Bhagat","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122940","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applthermaleng.2024.122940","article-title":"Variable Valve Actuation for Efficient Exhaust Thermal Management in an Off-Road Diesel Engine","volume":"246","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl. Therm. Eng."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"850","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2023.09.124","article-title":"Hydrogen-Diesel Dual-Fuel Combustion Sensitivity to Fuel Injection Parameters in a Multi-Cylinder Compression-Ignition Engine","volume":"49","author":"Farzam","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101605","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joei.2024.101605","article-title":"Effects of Biodiesel Injector Configuration and Its Injection Timing on Performance, Combustion and Emissions Characteristics of Liquid Ammonia Dual Direct Injection Engine","volume":"114","author":"Nadimi","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Energy Inst."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"674","article-title":"A Simulation and Experiment Study on the Emission Reduction Potential of Light-Duty Diesel Engine Retrofitted with an after-Treatment System: A Case Study","volume":"46","author":"Duy","year":"2024","journal-title":"Energy Sources Part A Recover. Util. Environ. Eff."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127025","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2023.127025","article-title":"Effect of Structural Parameters on Diesel Particulate Filter Trapping Performance of Heavy-Duty Diesel Engines Based on Grey Correlation Analysis","volume":"271","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127064","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2022.127064","article-title":"Experimental Investigation of the High-Pressure SCR Reactor Impact on a Marine Two-Stroke Diesel Engine","volume":"335","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130658","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2024.130658","article-title":"Nonlinear Model Predictive Control(NMPC) of Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC) Outlet Temperature for Active Regeneration of Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) in Diesel Engine","volume":"293","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"100618","article-title":"Utilization of Hydrogen and Methane as Energy Carriers with Exhaust Gas Recirculation for Sustainable Diesel Engines","volume":"23","author":"Sekar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag. X"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134847","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2022.134847","article-title":"Life-Cycle Cost Analysis of an Innovative Marine Dual-Fuel Engine under Uncertainties","volume":"380","author":"Bui","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2022.127254","article-title":"Dynamic Details inside Water-in-Oil (W\/O) Emulsion Droplet and Its Impact on Droplet Evaporation and Micro-Explosion","volume":"338","author":"Shen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pecs.2023.101133","article-title":"Synthesis and Characterization of Emulsion Fuels \u2013Implications to Spray and Engine Studies","volume":"101","author":"Gowrishankar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Prog. Energy Combust. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127809","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2023.127809","article-title":"Effect of Injection Strategy and Water Content on Water Emulsion Fuel Engine for Low Pollutant Compression Ignition Engines","volume":"343","author":"Woo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e37485","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e37485","article-title":"Biosurfactants as an Alternative Eco-Friendly Solution for Water-in-Diesel Emulsions-A Review Paper","volume":"10","author":"Ali","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113704","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2023.113704","article-title":"Recent Advancements in Water Emulsion Fuel to Explore Efficient and Cleaner Production from Various Biodiesels: A Retrospective Review","volume":"187","author":"Vellaiyan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tamam, M.Q.M., Yahya, W.J., Abdul Rahman, H., Ithnin, A.M., Abd Kadir, H., Rahman, M.M., Noge, H., Koga, T., and Sugeng, D.A. (2024). Application of an Inline Mixer to Produce Surfactant-Free Biodiesel-Diesel\/Water Emulsion Fuel: An Analysis of Water Droplets Characteristics and Drive Cycle Emissions. Arab. J. Sci. Eng., 1\u201314.","DOI":"10.1007\/s13369-024-09408-5"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126886","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2022.126886","article-title":"The Effect of Different In-Line Mixers Producing Emulsifier-Free Bio-Diesel Emulsion on the Diesel Engine Combustion Performance and Exhaust Emission","volume":"337","author":"Mahdi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohd Tamam, M.Q., Omi, M.R.T., Yahya, W.J., Ithnin, A.M., Abdul Rahman, H., Rahman, M.M., Abd Kadir, H., Noge, H., Koga, T., and Hong, C. (2023). Engine Performance and Emissions Evaluation of Surfactant-Free B30 Biodiesel\u2013Diesel\/Water Emulsion as Alternative Fuel. Sci. Rep., 13.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-37662-4"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119448","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2022.119448","article-title":"A New Shift Mechanism for Micro-Explosion of Water-Diesel Emulsion Droplets at Different Ambient Temperatures","volume":"323","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125782","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2022.125782","article-title":"Emulsification\u2013A Promising Approach to Improve Performance and Reduce Exhaust Emissions of a Biodiesel Fuelled Light-Duty Diesel Engine","volume":"263","author":"Gowrishankar","year":"2023","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1186\/s13705-024-00442-7","article-title":"Effect of Fuel Injection Pressure on the Performances of a CI Engine Using Water-Emulsified Diesel (WED) as a Fuel","volume":"14","author":"Mondal","year":"2024","journal-title":"Energy Sustain. Soc."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129782","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2023.129782","article-title":"Experimental Stability Investigation of Different Water-in-Jojoba Biodiesel Emulsions","volume":"357","author":"Ayad","year":"2024","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8027","DOI":"10.1007\/s13762-021-03401-3","article-title":"A Review on Emission and Performance of Water Diesel Micro-Emulsified Mixture-Diesel Engine","volume":"19","author":"Patel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121781","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molliq.2023.121781","article-title":"Effect of Surfactant Hydrophobic Chain Equivalence on the Oil-Water Interface and Emulsion Stability: A Dissipative Particle Dynamics and Experimental Study","volume":"382","author":"Han","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Mol. Liq."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1007\/s40095-021-00459-0","article-title":"Water in Diesel Emulsion Fuel: Production, Properties, Performance, and Exhaust Emission Analysis","volume":"13","author":"Attar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Energy Environ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121906","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molliq.2023.121906","article-title":"Interactions between Loaded Drugs and Surfactant Molecules in Micellar Drug Delivery Systems: A Critical Review","volume":"382","author":"Saha","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Mol. Liq."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"32168","article-title":"Review of the Application of Surfactants in Microemulsion Systems for Remediation of Petroleum Contaminated Soil and Sediments","volume":"12","author":"Vieira","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1016\/j.petlm.2022.01.003","article-title":"Rheological Study of Nanoparticle-Based Cationic Surfactant Solutions","volume":"8","author":"Bello","year":"2022","journal-title":"Petroleum"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"100439","article-title":"Non-Ionic Surfactants-Mediated Green Extraction of Polyphenols from Red Grape Pomace","volume":"32","author":"Alamri","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Appl. Res. Med. Aromat."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102482","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rineng.2024.102482","article-title":"The Investigation of Lecithin and Cocamide DEA Biosurfactant Concentrations on Emulsified Biodiesel Fuel Stability, Properties, and the Micro-Explosion Phenomenon","volume":"23","author":"Ali","year":"2024","journal-title":"Results Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molliq.2021.117218","article-title":"Effects of Emulsifiers on the Physicochemical Stability of Oil-in-Water Nanoemulsions: A Critical Review","volume":"340","author":"Marhamati","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Mol. Liq."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"4107","article-title":"Microemulsion Fuel Formulation from Used Cooking Oil with Carbinol as the Dispersion Phase","volume":"45","author":"Deepak","year":"2023","journal-title":"Energy Sources Part A Recover. Util. Environ. Eff."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpb.2023.08.009","article-title":"A Critical Review of the Novelties in the Development of Intravenous Nanoemulsions","volume":"191","author":"Czerniel","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2022.126369","article-title":"Modeling Microexplosion Mechanism in Droplet Combustion: Puffing and Droplet Breakup","volume":"266","author":"Kumar","year":"2023","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2024.125273","article-title":"Puffing and Micro-Explosion Effects in Composite Liquid Fuels in Different Heating Arrangements","volume":"223","author":"Antonov","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Heat Mass Transf."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127350","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2022.127350","article-title":"Mist Formation during Micro-Explosion of Emulsion Droplets","volume":"339","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120040","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2021.120040","article-title":"Macroscopic and Microscopic Spray Structure of Water-in-Diesel Emulsions","volume":"223","author":"Ismael","year":"2021","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112817","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2020.112817","article-title":"Recent Progress on Mixing Technology for Water-Emulsion Fuel: A Review","volume":"213","author":"Sartomo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126704","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2023.126704","article-title":"Performance and Emission Studies of a Common Rail Turbocharged Diesel Electric Generator Fueled with Emulsifier Free Water\/Diesel Emulsion","volume":"268","author":"Yahya","year":"2023","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"6710","article-title":"NOx Based Comparative Analysis of a CI Engine Fueled with Water in Diesel Emulsion","volume":"3","author":"Kaya","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energy Sources Part A Recover. Util. Environ. Eff."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"5527","article-title":"Analyzing the Storage Stability of Diesel Emulsified Fuels: A Comparative Standpoint","volume":"44","author":"Vasistha","year":"2022","journal-title":"Energy Sources Part A Recover. Util. Environ. Eff."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Fernandes Serodio, J.C. (2021). Method, System, Apparatus and Formulations for Producing Oil-Based Blends and Microemulsions and Nanoemulsions. Worldwide Application No. (WO2021090010A1)."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"100546","article-title":"Investigation and Performance Analysis of Water-Diesel Emulsion for Improvement of Performance and Emission Characteristics of Partially Premixed Charge Compression Ignition (PPCCI) Diesel Engines","volume":"36","author":"Elkelawy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2018.05.129","article-title":"Experimental Investigation on Spray, Evaporation and Combustion Characteristics of Ethanol-Diesel, Water-Emulsified Diesel and Neat Diesel Fuels","volume":"231","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119662","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2020.119662","article-title":"Performance and Emission of a Diesel Engine Using Different Water\/Waste Fish Oil (WFO) Biodiesel\/Diesel Emulsion Fuels: Optimization of Fuel Formulation via Response Surface Methodology (RSM)","volume":"288","author":"Khanjani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"00368504211020930","DOI":"10.1177\/00368504211020930","article-title":"Use of Diesel and Emulsified Diesel in CI Engine: A Comparative Analysis of Engine Characteristics","volume":"104","author":"Hassan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Prog."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101760","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joei.2024.101760","article-title":"A Review on Performance, Combustion and Emission of Diesel and Alcohols in a Dual Fuel Engine","volume":"116","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Energy Inst."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2022.126263","article-title":"Effects of the Cetane Number on Chemical Ignition Delay","volume":"264","author":"Kim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131033","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2024.131033","article-title":"Mitigating Fossil Fuel Deficiency and Environmental Impacts: Performance Analysis of Scenedesmus Obliquus Microalgae Biodiesel in a Diesel Engine","volume":"364","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118576","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2020.118576","article-title":"Impact of Water\u2013Biodiesel\u2013Diesel Nano-Emulsion Fuel on Performance Parameters and Diesel Engine Emission","volume":"280","author":"Abdollahi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1349","DOI":"10.1007\/s12239-023-0109-3","article-title":"Implementation of a Non-Surfactant Water-in-Diesel Emulsion Fuel in a Common Rail Direct Injection Diesel Vehicle","volume":"24","author":"Rahman","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Automot. Technol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129079","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2023.129079","article-title":"Effect of Early Intake Valve Closing, Exhaust Gas Recirculation and Split Injection on Combustion and Emissions Characteristics of a HDDI Diesel Engine Operating in PCCI Combustion Mode","volume":"353","author":"Cengiz","year":"2023","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2024.130267","article-title":"Synergistic Effects of Hybrid Nanoparticles along with Conventional Fuel on Engine Performance, Combustion, and Environmental Characteristics","volume":"292","year":"2024","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116386","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2022.116386","article-title":"Experimental Investigations on Biodiesel-Water Emulsion as a Potential Fuel for Early and Late Injection Based Premixed Lean Combustion","volume":"273","author":"Gowrishankar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103945","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2020.103945","article-title":"A Review on Catalytic Oxidation of Soot Emitted from Diesel Fuelled Engines","volume":"8","author":"Neha","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1041","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2021.10.485","article-title":"The Effect of Water Emulsified Diesel on Combustion, Performance and Emission Characteristics of Diesel Engine","volume":"52","author":"Gautam","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2020.119115","article-title":"Performance, Emission and Combustion Characteristics of Unmodified Diesel Engine with Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) Nano Particle along with Water-in-Diesel Emulsion Fuel","volume":"285","author":"Vigneswaran","year":"2021","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2020.117257","article-title":"Emissions and Performance Analysis of Diesel Powered Road Vehicle Equipped with Real-Time Non-Surfactant Emulsion Fuel Supply System","volume":"273","author":"Ramlan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2019.07.140","article-title":"Enhancement in Combustion, Performance, and Emission Characteristics of a Biodiesel-Fueled Diesel Engine by Using Water Emulsion and Nanoadditive","volume":"145","author":"Vellaiyan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125986","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2022.125986","article-title":"Combustion and Emission Characteristics of Diesel Engine Fueled with Diesel\/Cyclohexanol Blend Fuels under Different Exhaust Gas Recirculation Ratios and Injection Timings","volume":"332","author":"Su","year":"2023","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126377","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2022.126377","article-title":"Effects of Acetone-Butanol-Ethanol (ABE) Addition on HCCI-DI Engine Performance, Combustion and Emission","volume":"333","author":"Veza","year":"2023","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oh, J., Im, M., Oh, S., and Lee, C. (2019). Comparison of NOx and Smoke Characteristics of Water-in-Oil Emulsion and Marine Diesel Oil in 400-KW Marine Generator Engine. Energies, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/en12020228"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2020.119200","article-title":"Experimental Investigation to Reduce Environmental Pollutants Using Biofuel Nano-Water Emulsion in Thermal Barrier Coated Engine","volume":"285","author":"Elumalai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2018.10.076","article-title":"A Comprehensive Review on the Feasibility of Using Water Emulsified Diesel as a CI Engine Fuel","volume":"237","author":"Mondal","year":"2019","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"836","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psep.2023.08.075","article-title":"A Review of the Development and Application of Soot Modelling for Modern Diesel Engines and the Soot Modelling for Different Fuels","volume":"178","author":"Yin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Process Saf. Environ. Prot."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applthermaleng.2023.120114","article-title":"Experimental Study on Nucleation and Micro-Explosion Characteristics of Emulsified Heavy Fuel Oil Droplets at Elevated Temperatures during Evaporation","volume":"224","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Appl. Therm. Eng."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101718","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joei.2024.101718","article-title":"Numerical Investigation of Diesel Spray Combustion Characteristics in the Ammonia\/Air Atmosphere","volume":"116","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Energy Inst."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116488","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2019.116488","article-title":"Mechanism of Micro-Explosion of Water-in-Oil Emulsified Fuel Droplet and Its Effect on Soot Generation","volume":"191","author":"Shen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energy"}],"container-title":["Energies"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1073\/18\/4\/934\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:35:10Z","timestamp":1760027710000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1073\/18\/4\/934"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,15]]},"references-count":72,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2]]}},"alternative-id":["en18040934"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/en18040934","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1073"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1073","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,15]]}}}