{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,26]],"date-time":"2025-11-26T16:50:00Z","timestamp":1764175800427,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,21]],"date-time":"2025-06-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1750464000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia (FCT)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDB\/00151\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/00151\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Energies"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Torque and velocity fluctuations in internal combustion engines (ICEs), particularly during idle and low-speed operation, can reduce efficiency, increase vibration, and impose mechanical stress on coupled systems. This work presents the design, simulation, and experimental validation of a passive balancing cam mechanism developed to mitigate fluctuations in single-cylinder internal combustion engines (ICEs). The system consists of a cam and a spring-loaded follower that synchronizes with the engine cycle to store and release energy, generating a compensatory torque that stabilizes rotational speed. The mechanism was implemented on a single-cylinder Honda\u00ae engine and evaluated through simulations and laboratory tests under idle conditions. Results demonstrate a reduction in torque ripple amplitude of approximately 54% and standard deviation of 50%, as well as a decrease in angular speed fluctuation amplitude of about 43% and standard deviation of 42%, resulting in significantly smoother engine behavior. These improvements also address longstanding limitations in traditional powertrains, which often rely on heavy flywheels or electronically controlled dampers to manage rotational irregularities. Such solutions increase system complexity, weight, and energy losses. In contrast, the proposed passive mechanism offers a simpler, more efficient alternative, requiring no external control or energy input. Its effectiveness in stabilizing engine output makes it especially suited for integration into hybrid electric systems, where consistent generator performance and low mechanical noise are critical for efficient battery charging and protection of sensitive electronic components.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/en18133256","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,23]],"date-time":"2025-06-23T04:50:05Z","timestamp":1750654205000},"page":"3256","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Balancing Cam Mechanism for Instantaneous Torque and Velocity Stabilization in Internal Combustion Engines: Simulation and Experimental Validation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6165-5348","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel","family":"Cardoso","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"C-MAST\u2014Center for Mechanical and Aerospace Science and Technologies, Cal\u00e7ada Fonte do Lameiro, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4737-0274","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paulo","family":"Fael","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"C-MAST\u2014Center for Mechanical and Aerospace Science and Technologies, Cal\u00e7ada Fonte do Lameiro, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1691-1709","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro","family":"Gaspar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"C-MAST\u2014Center for Mechanical and Aerospace Science and Technologies, Cal\u00e7ada Fonte do Lameiro, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Ant\u00f3nio","family":"Esp\u00edrito-Santo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IT-Institute of Telecommunications, Cal\u00e7ada Fonte do Lameiro, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1493","DOI":"10.1007\/s12206-015-0322-8","article-title":"A mathematical model to investigate the effects of misfire and cyclic variations on crankshaft speed fluctuations in internal combustion engines","volume":"29","author":"Solmaz","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Mech. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1177\/09544070211026290","article-title":"Modeling and validation of crankshaft speed fluctuations of a single-cylinder four-stroke diesel engine","volume":"236","author":"Babagiray","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part D J. Automob. Eng."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egyr.2020.10.031","article-title":"Instantaneous angular velocity and torque on Otto single-cylinder engine: A theoretical and experimental analysis","volume":"6","author":"Cardoso","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energy Rep."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1115\/1.1365122","article-title":"A nonlinear, transient, single-cylinder diesel engine simulation for predictions of instantaneous engine speed and torque","volume":"123","author":"Filipi","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2012.01.020","article-title":"Effect of instantaneous rotational speed on the analysis of measured diesel engine cylinder pressure data","volume":"60","author":"Antonopoulos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"496","article-title":"Review on performance of dual mass flywheel over conventional flywheel","volume":"71","author":"Munde","year":"2022","journal-title":"Math. Stat. Eng. Appl."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"759","article-title":"A review paper on vibration analysis of DI engine","volume":"4","author":"Dawange","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cardoso, D.S., Nunes, D., Faria, J., Fael, P.O., and Gaspar, P.D. (2023). Intelligent micro-cogeneration systems for residential grids: A sustainable solution for efficient energy management. Energies, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/en16135215"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"115","article-title":"Analyzing the usage of Wankel engine technology in future automotive powertrains","volume":"5","author":"Mittal","year":"2023","journal-title":"SAE Int. J. Sustain. Transp."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schaper, U., Sawodny, O., Mahl, T., and Blessing, U. (2009, January 10\u201312). Modeling and torque estimation of an automotive dual mass flywheel. Proceedings of the 2009 American Control Conference, St. Louis, MO, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ACC.2009.5160136"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2971","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2011.2159255","article-title":"Active torque cancellation for transmitted vibration reduction","volume":"60","author":"Ayana","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"051010","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4049620","article-title":"Model-based unified framework for detection and mitigation of cyclic torque imbalance","volume":"143","author":"Anjum","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104634","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conengprac.2020.104634","article-title":"Modelling and active damping of engine torque ripple","volume":"104","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Control Eng. Pract."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Galvagno, E., Velardocchia, M., Vigliani, A., and Tota, A. (2015). Experimental Analysis and Model Validation of a Dual Mass Flywheel, SAE International. SAE Technical Paper.","DOI":"10.4271\/2015-01-1121"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1007\/s38311-015-0087-9","article-title":"Clutch Disc with Centrifugal Pendulum Absorber","volume":"118","author":"Fieback","year":"2016","journal-title":"ATZ Worldw."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Li, Q., and Zhang, T. (2018). Study on Vibration Damping Characteristics of Centrifugal Pendulum Double Mass Flywheel. DEStech Trans. Comput. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mechmachtheory.2016.03.011","article-title":"Reducing torsional vibrations by means of a kinematically driven flywheel\u2014Theory and experiment","volume":"102","author":"Pfabe","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mech. Mach. Theory"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egyr.2020.01.001","article-title":"Modeling and simulation of a passive variable inertia flywheel","volume":"6","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energy Rep."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mechrescom.2009.11.007","article-title":"Simultaneous inertia force\/moment balancing and torque compensation","volume":"37","author":"Arakelian","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mech. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mechmachtheory.2016.10.023","article-title":"A balancing cam mechanism for minimizing the torque fluctuation of engine camshafts","volume":"108","author":"Lin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mech. Mach. Theory"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cardoso, D.S., Fael, P.O., Gaspar, P.D., and Esp\u00edrito-Santo, A. (2024). An innovative mechanical approach to mitigating torque fluctuations in IC engines during idle operation. Designs, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/designs8030047"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1840","DOI":"10.1177\/0954407015579296","article-title":"Torque transmissibility of the passive torsional vibration isolator","volume":"229","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part D J. Automob. Eng."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Society, I.E.E.V.T. (2015, January 19\u201322). Active torque ripple damping in direct drive range extender applications. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference (VPPC), Montreal, QC, Canada."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jianguo, B., Xudong, L., Ming, Z., and Kaixiong, L. (2018, January 12\u201314). Design and optimization of flywheel motor based on torque density. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE 3rd Advanced Information Technology, Electronic and Automation Control Conference (IAEAC), Chongqing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/IAEAC.2018.8577753"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.4271\/2009-01-1053","article-title":"Challenges for increased efficiency through gasoline engine downsizing","volume":"2","author":"Fraser","year":"2009","journal-title":"SAE Int. J. Engines"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2013.08.097","article-title":"Hybrid electric vehicles and their challenges: A review","volume":"29","author":"Hannan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egyr.2019.08.077","article-title":"A review of micro and mild hybrid systems","volume":"6","author":"Cardoso","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energy Rep."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1365\/s35595-011-0006-7","article-title":"Extreme downsizing by the two-cylinder gasoline engine from Fiat","volume":"11","author":"Mastrangelo","year":"2011","journal-title":"ATZautotechnology"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Omanovic, A., Zsiga, N., Soltic, P., and Onder, C. (2021). Increased ICE efficiency with optimized valve timings. Energies, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/en14102750"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1999","DOI":"10.4271\/2016-01-2160","article-title":"Effects of cylinder deactivation on three cylinder engines","volume":"9","author":"Bech","year":"2016","journal-title":"SAE Int. J. Engines"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blair, J.G. (1999). Design and Simulation of Four-Stroke Engines, SAE International.","DOI":"10.4271\/R-186"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Porumb, I., Marian, R., Do\u011fan\u00e7ay, K., and Chahl, J.S. (2022). Robust instant angle speed measurement for internal combustion engines\u2014A novel sensing suite and methodology. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22030754"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2363","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2018.2877808","article-title":"Instantaneous rotation speed measurement system based on variable reluctance sensors for torsional vibration monitoring","volume":"68","author":"Addabbo","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/LSENS.2018.2872639","article-title":"A novel speed measurement system for turbomachinery","volume":"2","author":"Costello","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"061008","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4041962","article-title":"Real-time angular velocity-based misfire detection using artificial neural networks","volume":"141","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Zhang, P., Gao, W., Li, Y., Wang, Y., and Pang, H. (2022). Misfire detection using crank speed and long short-term memory recurrent neural network. Energies, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/en15010300"},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"1","article-title":"Comparison of simulation and experimental test results of the turbocharger temperature for two gasoline direct injection engines","volume":"237","author":"Savaripour","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part E J. Process Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"517","article-title":"Experimental and computational fluid dynamics-based numerical simulation of using natural gas in a dual-fueled diesel engine","volume":"12","author":"Akbarian","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eng. Appl. Comput. Fluid Mech."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kiss, A., Szab\u00f3, B., Kun, K., and Weltsch, Z. (2024). Prediction of efficiency, performance, and emissions based on a validated simulation model in hydrogen\u2013gasoline dual-fuel internal combustion engines. Energies, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/en17225680"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1177\/0142331214549093","article-title":"Cycle-by-cycle estimation of cylinder pressure and indicated torque waveform using crankshaft speed fluctuations","volume":"37","author":"Ali","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trans. Inst. Meas. Control"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compeleceng.2017.01.002","article-title":"On-line indicated torque estimation for internal combustion engines using discrete observer","volume":"60","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Comput. Electr. Eng."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tong, Q., Xie, H., Song, K., and Zou, D. (2019). A control-oriented engine torque online estimation approach for gasoline engines based on in-cycle crankshaft speed dynamics. Energies, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/en12244683"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Uicker, J.J., Pennock, G.R., and Shigley, J.E. (2016). Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, Oxford University Press. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Budynas, R.G., and Nisbett, J.K. (2010). Shigley\u2019s Mechanical Engineering Design, McGraw-Hill. [9th ed.]."}],"container-title":["Energies"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1073\/18\/13\/3256\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:56:21Z","timestamp":1760032581000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1073\/18\/13\/3256"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,21]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7]]}},"alternative-id":["en18133256"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/en18133256","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1073"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1996-1073"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,21]]}}}