{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,19]],"date-time":"2025-11-19T14:59:27Z","timestamp":1763564367325,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":101,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,24]],"date-time":"2024-06-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1719187200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"FCT, Portugal within CIDMA project","award":["UIDB\/04106\/2020","UIDB\/50008\/2020","Call-2022.04901.CEECIND\/CP1716\/CT0004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04106\/2020","UIDB\/50008\/2020","Call-2022.04901.CEECIND\/CP1716\/CT0004"]}]},{"name":"FCT\/MCTES through national funds and when applicable co-funded by EU funds","award":["UIDB\/04106\/2020","UIDB\/50008\/2020","Call-2022.04901.CEECIND\/CP1716\/CT0004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04106\/2020","UIDB\/50008\/2020","Call-2022.04901.CEECIND\/CP1716\/CT0004"]}]},{"name":"Scientific Employment Stimulus-Individual","award":["UIDB\/04106\/2020","UIDB\/50008\/2020","Call-2022.04901.CEECIND\/CP1716\/CT0004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04106\/2020","UIDB\/50008\/2020","Call-2022.04901.CEECIND\/CP1716\/CT0004"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Encyclopedia"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Swimming coaches know that a swimmer\u2019s assessment must be specific and ecological. Thus, it is critical to select and employ adequate methodologies. The tethered swimming method can be useful and valid, in addition to being simple to apply. Regular use of this methodology can give coaches tools to intervene with their swimmers and increase performance. The main objective of this manuscript was to analyze the potential for measuring the propulsive forces exerted in water as a biomechanical tool for evaluating and training competitive swimmers. The key results demonstrated that this methodology allows (i) the assessment of upper limb bilateral kinetic asymmetries; (ii) the evaluation of the contribution of the upper and lower limb actions, inferring about the (un)balance between strength and coordination; (iii) the examination of the relationship between the intracyclic variations in speed and force; (iv) the evaluation of the effective application of force to the speed of high-level swimmers. Furthermore, this manuscript suggests advances using mathematical modeling and artificial intelligence (AI) that will provide significant insights into swimming performances. AI developments will promote its integration into sports optimization, and swimming will be no exception.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/encyclopedia4030067","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,24]],"date-time":"2024-06-24T13:06:40Z","timestamp":1719234400000},"page":"1044-1061","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Tethered Swimming: Historical Notes and Future Prospects"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"4","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5956-9790","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro","family":"Morou\u00e7o","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sport, Exercise and Health, ESECS, Polytechnic University of Leiria, 2411-901 Leiria, Portugal"},{"name":"Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4938-0855","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dina","family":"Tavares","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, ESECS, Polytechnic University of Leiria, 2411-901 Leiria, Portugal"},{"name":"Center for Research and Development in Mathematics and Applications (CIDMA), Department of Mathematics, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6764-8432","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hugo Pl\u00e1cido","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Telecomunica\u00e7\u00f5es (IT), Avenida Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal"},{"name":"Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico (IST), Department of Bioengineering, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"68","article-title":"Propelling Force Measured during Tethered Swimming in the Four Competitive Swimming Styles","volume":"41","author":"Magel","year":"1970","journal-title":"Res. Q. Am. Assoc. Health Phys. Educ. Recreat."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"21","article-title":"Water Resistance in Swimming","volume":"4","author":"Karpovich","year":"1933","journal-title":"Res. Q. Am. Phys. Educ. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Mosterd, W.L. (1961). Measuring of Propelling Force and Stroke Analysis in Trained Swimmers. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Utrecht, Schotanus & Jens]."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"504","article-title":"Mechanical Work and Efficiency in Swimming Crawl and Back Strokes","volume":"10","author":"Karpovich","year":"1939","journal-title":"Arbeitsphysiologie"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"18","article-title":"Relationship of Maximum Sprint Speed and Maximal Stroking Force in Swimming","volume":"3","author":"Christensen","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Swim. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9290(81)90002-6","article-title":"Tethered Swimming Forces in the Crawl, Breast and Back Strokes and Their Relationship to Competitive Performance","volume":"14","author":"Yeater","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1346","DOI":"10.14198\/jhse.2017.124.20","article-title":"Biomechanical and Bioenergetical Evaluation of Swimmers Using Fully-Tethered Swimming: A Qualitative Review","volume":"12","author":"Amaro","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Hum. Sport Exerc."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Cortesi, M., Ceseracciu, E., Sawacha, Z., and Gatta, G. (2010, January 16\u201319). Which Is the Recommend Duration for the Tethered Swimming Test?. Proceedings of the XIth International Symposium on Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming, Oslo, Norway."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1123\/pes.24.2.312","article-title":"Evaluation of Adolescent Swimmers through a 30-s Tethered Test","volume":"24","author":"Fernandes","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatr. Exerc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Dominguez-Castells, R., and Arellano, R. (2011). Muscular and arm crawl stroke power: Evaluating their relationship. ISBS-Conference Proceedings Archive."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Schleihauf, R.E., Higgins, J.R., Hinrichs, R., Luedtke, D., Malglischo, C., Maglischo, E.W., and Thayer, A. (1988). Propulsive Techniques: Front Crawl Stroke, Butterfly, Back Stroke, and Breaststroke. Swimming science V, Human Kinetics Publishers."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Toussaint, H.M. Analysis of Front-Crawl Swimming Performance-Factors Using the MAD-System: Science Meets Practice. Proceedings of the First International Symposium Sciences and Practices in Swimming."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Takagi, H., and Wilson, B. (1999). Calculating Hydrodynamic Force by Using Pressure Differences in Swimming. Biomech. Med. Swim. VIII, 101\u2013106."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"231","article-title":"A Tethered Swimming Power Test Is Highly Reliable","volume":"6","author":"Kjendlie","year":"2006","journal-title":"Port. J. Sport Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.2174\/1875399X00801010031","article-title":"Mathematical Basis for Modeling Swimmer Power Output in the Front Crawl Tethered Swimming: An Application to Aerobic Evaluation","volume":"1","author":"Denadai","year":"2008","journal-title":"Open Sports Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"16","article-title":"A Computer Based System for Measurement of Force and Power during Front Crawl Swimming","volume":"2","author":"Costill","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Swim. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Maglischo, C.W., and Maglischo, E.W. (1984). Tethered and Nontethered Crawl Swimming. ISBS-Conference Proceedings Archive, Northern Michigan University."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"87","article-title":"Maximam Velocity Swimming: Interrelationships of Stroking Characteristics, Force Production and Anthropometric Variables","volume":"11","author":"Keskinen","year":"1989","journal-title":"Scand. J. Sport. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1080\/026404100419856","article-title":"Net Forces during Tethered Simulation of Underwater Streamlined Gliding and Kicking Techniques of the Freestyle Turn","volume":"18","author":"Lyttle","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1123\/jab.27.2.161","article-title":"Relationship between Tethered Forces and the Four Swimming Techniques Performance","volume":"27","author":"Keskinen","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Appl. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Fomitchenko, T.G. (1999). Relationship between Sprint Speed and Power Capacity in Different Groups of Swimmers. Biomech. Med. Swim. VIII Jyvask. Gummerus Print., 203\u2013207."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"113","article-title":"Measurement of Power Delivered to an External Weight","volume":"2","author":"Hopper","year":"1983","journal-title":"Biomech. Med. Swim. Champaign Hum. Kinet."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"8","article-title":"Relationship between Intracyclic Linear Body Velocity Fluctuations, Power, and Sprint Breaststroke Performance","volume":"13","author":"Costill","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Swim. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"20","article-title":"Sprint Speed vs. Swimming Power","volume":"20","author":"Costill","year":"1983","journal-title":"Swim. Tech."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"15","article-title":"The Relationship between Seven Anaerobic Tests and Swim Performance","volume":"6","author":"Rohrs","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Swim. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"1","article-title":"Significant Bivariate Correlations: To Be or Not to Be?","volume":"16","year":"2020","journal-title":"Motricidade"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Wilke, K., and Madsen, \u00d8. (1986). Coaching the Young Swimmer, Michael Joseph."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Vilas-Boas, J.P. (2010). Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming, Past, Present and Future. Biomech. Med. Swim. XI, 11\u201319."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1080\/17461391.2022.2046174","article-title":"A New Model of Performance Classification to Standardize the Research Results in Swimming","volume":"23","author":"Gay","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Sport Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsams.2009.01.003","article-title":"Energetics and Biomechanics as Determining Factors of Swimming Performance: Updating the State of the Art","volume":"13","author":"Barbosa","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Sci. Med. Sport"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Maglischo, E.W. (2003). Swimming Fastest, Human Kinetics."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"30","article-title":"Evaluation of Technique Performances in Freestyle Swimming","volume":"2","author":"Keskinen","year":"1997","journal-title":"Kinesiology"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3093","DOI":"10.1519\/JSC.0000000000000509","article-title":"Tethered Swimming Can Be Used to Evaluate Force Contribution for Short-Distance Swimming Performance","volume":"28","author":"Marinho","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Strength Cond. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.2478\/v10101-009-0020-z","article-title":"Anaerobic Capacity of Upper Extremity Muscles of Male and Female Swimmers","volume":"1","author":"Ogonowska","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biomed. Hum. Kinet."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9290(00)00166-4","article-title":"Improved Accuracy and Reliability of Sweepback Angle, Pitch Angle and Hand Velocity Calculations in Swimming","volume":"34","author":"Lauder","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2008.10.009","article-title":"Unsteady Flow Field around a Human Hand and Propulsive Force in Swimming","volume":"42","author":"Matsuuchi","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2008.10.037","article-title":"Rolling Rhythms in Front Crawl Swimming with Six-Beat Kick","volume":"42","author":"Sanders","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"11","article-title":"Reliability and validity of basic kinematics and mechanical characteristics of pulling force in swimmers measured by the method of tethered swimming with maximum intensity of 60 seconds","volume":"1","author":"Dopsaj","year":"2003","journal-title":"Facta Univ. Ser. Phys. Educ. Sport"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"15","article-title":"The Relationship between 50m-Freestyle Results and Characteristics of Tethered Forces in Male Sprint Swimmers: A New Approach to Tethered Swimming Test","volume":"1","author":"Dopsaj","year":"2000","journal-title":"Facta Univ. Phys. Educ. Sport"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1080\/24748668.2011.11868560","article-title":"Assessment of Accuracy, Reliability and Force Measurement Errors for a Tethered Swimming Apparatus","volume":"11","author":"Psycharakis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Perform. Anal. Sport"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"12","article-title":"Reliability of Force Production in Tethered Freestyle Swimming among Competitive Age-Group Swimmers","volume":"19","author":"Taylor","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Sport. Sci"},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"75","article-title":"A Longitudinal Study of Tethered Swimming Force in Competitive Age Group Swimmers","volume":"3","author":"Taylor","year":"2003","journal-title":"Port. J. Sport Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morou\u00e7o, P.G., Marinho, D.A., Izquierdo, M., Neiva, H., and Marques, M.C. (2015). Relative Contribution of Arms and Legs in 30 s Fully Tethered Front Crawl Swimming. BioMed Res. Int., 2015.","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/563206"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Toubekis, A.G., Gourgoulis, V., and Tokmakidis, S.P. (2010, January 16\u201319). Tethered Swimming as an Evaluation Tool of Single Arm-Stroke Force. Proceedings of the XIth International Symposium for Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming, Oslo, Norway."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"209","article-title":"Effects of Weight Assisted Dry-Land Strength Training on Swimming Performance","volume":"8","author":"Trappe","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Strength Cond. Res."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"11","article-title":"Assessment of the Mechanical Power in the Young Swimmer","volume":"6","author":"Ria","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Swim. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.2174\/1875399X01003010081","article-title":"Quantification of Maximal Force Produced in Standard and Contra-Standard Sculling in Synchronized Swimming A Pilot Study","volume":"3","author":"Diogo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Open Sports Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1980.48.2.232","article-title":"Maximal Oxygen Uptake during Free, Tethered, and Flume Swimming","volume":"48","author":"Bonen","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"173","article-title":"Peripheral EMG Comparison between Fully Tethered and Free Front Crawl Swimming","volume":"2","author":"Bollens","year":"1988","journal-title":"Swim. Sci. V"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1139\/h95-031","article-title":"Effects of Training on Performance in Competitive Swimming","volume":"20","author":"Mujika","year":"1995","journal-title":"Can. J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1159\/000423706","article-title":"A Protocol for the Determination of Critical Speed as an Index of Swimming Endurance Performance","volume":"Volume 39","author":"Wright","year":"1994","journal-title":"Medicine and Science in Aquatic Sports"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stager, J.M., and Coyle, M.A. (2005). Energy Systems. Handb. Sport. Med. Sci. Swim., 1\u201319.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470698761.ch1"},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Soares, S. (2007). Avalia\u00e7\u00e3o Indirecta Da Funcionalidade Anaer\u00f3bia de Nadadores de Diferente Estatuto Maturacional Com Recurso a Testes Laboratoriais e de Terreno. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Porto]."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"21","article-title":"Tethered Force and Velocity Relationships","volume":"20","author":"Adams","year":"1983","journal-title":"Swim. Tech."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"278","article-title":"Relationships of Stroke Rate, Distance per Stroke, and Velocity in Competitive Swimming","volume":"11","author":"Craig","year":"1979","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports"},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"32","article-title":"Simultaneous Recordings of Velocity and Video during Swimming","volume":"6","author":"Craig","year":"2006","journal-title":"Port. J. Sport Sci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barbosa, T.M., Fernandes, R., Keskinen, K.L., Cola\u00e7o, P., Cardoso, C., Silva, J., and Vilas-Boas, J.P. (2006). Evaluation of the Energy Expenditure in Competitive Swimming Strokes. Int. J. Sports Med., 894\u2013899.","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2006-923776"},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Vilas-Boas, J.P., Fernandes, R.J., and Barbosa, T.M. (2011). Intra-Cycle Velocity Variations, Swimming Economy, Performance and Training in Swimming. The World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance, Nova Science Publishers, Hauppauge."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"224","article-title":"Measurement of the Force-Velocity Relationship in Human Muscle under Concentric and Eccentric Contractions","volume":"Volume 8","author":"Komi","year":"1973","journal-title":"Biomechanics iii"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1123\/jab.27.1.74","article-title":"Three-Dimensional CFD Analysis of the Hand and Forearm in Swimming","volume":"27","author":"Marinho","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Appl. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Schleihauf, R.E. (1979). A Hydrodynamic Analysis of Swimming Propulsion. Swimming, 70\u2013109."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2011.561867","article-title":"The Force\u2013Time Profile of Elite Front Crawl Swimmers","volume":"29","author":"Formosa","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"300","article-title":"Does Combined Dry Land Strength and Aerobic Training Inhibit Performance of Young Competitive Swimmers?","volume":"9","author":"Garrido","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1249\/00005768-198201000-00010","article-title":"Relationship between Power and Sprint Freestyle","volume":"14","author":"Sharp","year":"1982","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sport. Exerc."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2007-1024645","article-title":"Relationship between Upper Body Anaerobic Power and Freestyle Swimming Performance","volume":"12","author":"Hawley","year":"1991","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsm.26.3.151","article-title":"Muscle Power Predicts Freestyle Swimming Performance","volume":"26","author":"Hawley","year":"1992","journal-title":"Br. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Morou\u00e7o, P.G.F. (2012). Tethered Swimming and Dry Land Force Parameters: Useful Tools to Characterize Front Crawl Performance in Both Genders, Universidade da Beira Interior."},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"211","article-title":"A Correlational Analysis of Tethered Swimming, Swim Sprint Performance and Dry-Land Power Assessments","volume":"37","author":"Loturco","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1080\/24748668.2022.2072561","article-title":"The Relationship between Tethered Swimming, Anaerobic Critical Velocity, Dry-Land Strength, and Swimming Performance","volume":"22","author":"Gay","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Perform. Anal. Sport"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1007\/s004210050581","article-title":"Relative Contribution of Arms and Legs in Humans to Propulsion in 25-m Sprint Front-Crawl Swimming","volume":"80","author":"Deschodt","year":"1999","journal-title":"Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"1","article-title":"Asymmetries in Swimming: Where Do They Come From","volume":"18","author":"Sanders","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Swim. Res."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1123\/jab.11.1.103","article-title":"Three-Dimensional Analysis of the Men\u2018s 100-m Freestyle during the 1992 Olympic Games","volume":"11","author":"Cappaert","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Appl. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2005.05.003","article-title":"Arm Coordination Symmetry and Breathing Effect in Front Crawl","volume":"24","author":"Seifert","year":"2005","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2129","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0b013e31818160bc","article-title":"Shoulder and Hip Roll Changes during 200-m Front Crawl Swimming","volume":"40","author":"Psycharakis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Goldfuss, A.J. (1970). A Temporal and Force Analysis of the Crawl Arm Stroke during Tethered Swimming, University of Oregon, School of Health, Physical Education and Recreation."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2014.12.012","article-title":"Quantification of Upper Limb Kinetic Asymmetries in Front Crawl Swimming","volume":"40","author":"Marinho","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0028-1104581","article-title":"Effect of Force Symmetry on Coordination in Crawl","volume":"30","author":"Seifert","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Bucher, W. (1975). The Influence of the Leg Kick and the Arm Stroke on the Total Speed during the Crawl Stroke. Swim. II, 180\u2013187."},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"Hollander, A.P. (1987). Contribution of the Legs to Propulsion in Front Crawl Swimming. Swim. Sci., 17\u201329."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.2165\/00007256-199213010-00002","article-title":"Biomechanics of Competitive Front Crawl Swimming","volume":"13","author":"Toussaint","year":"1992","journal-title":"Sport. Med."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"854","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0030-1265175","article-title":"Reproducibility of Limb Power Outputs and Cardiopulmonary Responses to Exercise Using a Novel Swimming Training Machine","volume":"31","author":"Swaine","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-201X.1996.490237000.x","article-title":"Anaerobic Capacity and Maximal Oxygen Uptake during Arm Stroke, Leg Kicking and Whole Body Swimming","volume":"157","author":"Ogita","year":"1996","journal-title":"Acta Physiol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"897","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.2017-0223","article-title":"Intracyclic Variation of Force and Swimming Performance","volume":"13","author":"Barbosa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1087","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.2019-0466","article-title":"Relationship between Tethered Swimming in a Flume and Swimming Performance","volume":"15","author":"Arellano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruiz-Navarro, J.J., Andersen, J.T., Cuenca-Fern\u00e1ndez, F., L\u00f3pez-Contreras, G., Morou\u00e7o, P.G., and Arellano, R. (2022). Quantification of Swimmers\u2019 Ability to Apply Force in the Water: The Potential Role of Two New Variables during Tethered Swimming. Sport. Biomech., 1\u201313.","DOI":"10.1080\/14763141.2022.2089220"},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"Mason, B., Formosa, D., and Toussaint, H.M. (2010, January 16\u201319). A Method to Estimate Active Drag over a Range of Swimming Velocities Which May Be Used to Evaluate the Stroke Mechanics of the Swimmer. Proceedings of the XIth International Symposium for Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming, Oslo, Norway."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1519\/00126548-200206000-00001","article-title":"Strength and Power Training of Australian Olympic Swimmers","volume":"24","author":"Newton","year":"2002","journal-title":"Strength Cond. J."},{"key":"ref_88","first-page":"357","article-title":"Combined Strength and Endurance Training in Competitive Swimmers","volume":"8","author":"Aspenes","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aspenes, S.T., and Karlsen, T. (2012). Exercise-Training Intervention Studies in Competitive Swimming. Sports Medicine, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.2165\/11630760-000000000-00000"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.2478\/v10036-009-0016-3","article-title":"Physical Endurance, Somatic Indices and Swimming Technique Parameters as Determinants of Front Crawl Swimming Speed at Short Distances in Young Swimmers","volume":"13","author":"Strzala","year":"2009","journal-title":"Med. Sport."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Madgwick, S.O.H., Harrison, A.J.L., and Vaidyanathan, R. (July, January 29). Estimation of IMU and MARG Orientation Using a Gradient Descent Algorithm. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics, Zurich, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICORR.2011.5975346"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramos F\u00e9lix, E., da Silva, H.P., Olstad, B.H., Cabri, J., and Lobato Correia, P. (2019). SwimBIT: A Novel Approach to Stroke Analysis During Swim Training Based on Attitude and Heading Reference System (AHRS). Sports, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/sports7110238"},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"846107","article-title":"On the Selection and Meaning of Variable Order Operators for Dynamic Modeling","volume":"2010","author":"Ramirez","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Differ. Equ."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almeida, R., Tavares, D., and Torres, D.F.M. (2019). The Variable-Order Fractional Calculus of Variations, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-94006-9"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tarasov, V.E. (2018). Generalized Memory: Fractional Calculus Approach. Fractal Fract., 2.","DOI":"10.3390\/fractalfract2040023"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cam.2017.04.042","article-title":"Combined Fractional Variational Problems of Variable Order and Some Computational Aspects","volume":"339","author":"Tavares","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Comput. Appl. Math."},{"key":"ref_97","first-page":"2","article-title":"Diffusion Process Modeling by Using Fractional-Order Models","volume":"257","author":"Sierociuk","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Math. Comput."},{"key":"ref_98","unstructured":"Mainardi, F. (2022). Fractional Calculus and Waves in Linear Viscoelasticity: An Introduction to Mathematical Models, World Scientific."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Atanackovic, T.M., Pilipovic, S., Stankovic, B., and Zorica, D. (2014). Fractional Calculus with Applications in Mechanics: Wave Propagation, Impact and Variational Principles, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118909065"},{"key":"ref_100","first-page":"714","article-title":"Analysis of Football Player\u2019s Motion in View of Fractional Calculus","volume":"11","author":"Couceiro","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cent. Eur. J. Phys."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malinowska, A.B., and Torres, D.F.M. (2012). Introduction to the Fractional Calculus of Variations, Imperial College Press.","DOI":"10.1142\/p871"}],"container-title":["Encyclopedia"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2673-8392\/4\/3\/67\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:03:41Z","timestamp":1760108621000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2673-8392\/4\/3\/67"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,24]]},"references-count":101,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9]]}},"alternative-id":["encyclopedia4030067"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/encyclopedia4030067","relation":{},"ISSN":["2673-8392"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2673-8392"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,24]]}}}