{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]],"date-time":"2026-02-03T18:16:05Z","timestamp":1770142565665,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,6]],"date-time":"2023-07-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1688601600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Funds through FCT (Foundation for Science and Technology)","award":["UIDB\/05183\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/05183\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Environments"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In the current context of increasing costs of production factors, it is essential to optimize the management of available resources, seeking to incorporate technologies that improve knowledge of the variables involved in the agronomic production process. The aim of this study is to define and validate management zones (MZ) in a 3.3 ha vineyard located near \u00c9vora, in the South of Portugal. A contact sensor (\u201cVeris 2000 XA\u201d) was used to map soil apparent electrical conductivity (ECa) and a precision altimetric survey of the field was carried out with a global navigation satellite system receiver (GNSS). The results of these surveys were submitted to geostatistical treatments that allowed the definition of three MZ (less, intermediate, and more productive potential). The validation of such MZ was carried out by laboratory analysis of soil samples (texture, pH, organic matter\u2014OM, moisture content, phosphorous, potassium, exchange bases, and cation exchange capacity\u2014CEC), measurements of soil compaction (cone index\u2014CI) with an electronic cone penetrometer, and through indices (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index\u2014NDVI, and Normalized Difference Water Index\u2014NDWI) obtained by remote sensing (RS) using Sentinel-2 satellite images. All these parameters (soil parameters and RS indices) proved the validity of the MZ (of less, intermediate, and more productive potential) defined from the ECa and altimetric survey. This validation attests to the interest of expeditious technological tools for monitoring ECa as a fundamental step in implementing smart agronomic decision-making processes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/environments10070117","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,7]],"date-time":"2023-07-07T01:41:36Z","timestamp":1688694096000},"page":"117","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Definition and Validation of Vineyard Management Zones Based on Soil Apparent Electrical Conductivity and Altimetric Survey"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5178-8158","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Serrano","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"MED\u2014Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development and CHANGE\u2014Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Universidade de \u00c9vora, P\u00f3lo da Mitra, Ap. 94, 7006-554 \u00c9vora, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Vasco","family":"Mau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MED\u2014Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development and CHANGE\u2014Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Universidade de \u00c9vora, P\u00f3lo da Mitra, Ap. 94, 7006-554 \u00c9vora, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Rodrigo","family":"Rodrigues","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MED\u2014Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development and CHANGE\u2014Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Universidade de \u00c9vora, P\u00f3lo da Mitra, Ap. 94, 7006-554 \u00c9vora, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Lu\u00eds","family":"Paix\u00e3o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"AgroInsider Lda., 7005-841 \u00c9vora, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Shakib","family":"Shahidian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MED\u2014Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development and CHANGE\u2014Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Universidade de \u00c9vora, P\u00f3lo da Mitra, Ap. 94, 7006-554 \u00c9vora, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0305-8147","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"Marques da Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MED\u2014Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development and CHANGE\u2014Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Universidade de \u00c9vora, P\u00f3lo da Mitra, Ap. 94, 7006-554 \u00c9vora, Portugal"},{"name":"AgroInsider Lda., 7005-841 \u00c9vora, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6975-0350","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu\u00eds L.","family":"Paniagua","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Escuela de Ingenier\u00edas Agrarias, Universidad de Extremadura, Avenida Adolfo Su\u00e1rez, S\/N, 06007 Badajoz, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8465-1318","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francisco J.","family":"Moral","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Expresi\u00f3n Gr\u00e1fica, Escuela de Ingenier\u00edas Industriales, Universidad de Extremadura, Avenida de Elvas, S\/N, 06006 Badajoz, Spain"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.156181","article-title":"A multidisciplinary approach to assess environmental and economic impact of conventional and innovative vineyards management systems in Northern Italy","volume":"838","author":"Casson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ammoniaci, M., Kartsiotis, S.-P., Perria, R., and Storchi, P. (2021). State of the art of monitoring technologies and data processing for Precision Viticulture. Agriculture, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture11030201"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-019-09663-9","article-title":"Mapping vineyard vigor using airborne remote sensing: Relations with yield, berry composition and sanitary status under humid climate conditions","volume":"21","author":"Ferrer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prec. Agric."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2013.05.009","article-title":"Subfield management class delineation using cluster analysis from spatial principal components of soil variables","volume":"97","author":"Bruno","year":"2013","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1111\/sum.12110","article-title":"Spatial and vertical analysis of soil properties in a Mediterranean vineyard soil","volume":"30","author":"Unamunzaga","year":"2014","journal-title":"Soil Use Manag."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-021-09836-5","article-title":"Identification of main factors affecting the within-field spatial variability of grapevine phenology and total soluble solids accumulation: Towards the vineyard zoning using auxiliary information","volume":"23","author":"Ingram","year":"2022","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1016\/j.still.2009.12.002","article-title":"Delineation of management zones using mobile measurements of soil apparent electrical conductivity and multivariate geostatistical techniques","volume":"106","author":"Moral","year":"2010","journal-title":"Soil Tillage Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.5344\/ajev.2021.21038","article-title":"Remote sensing, yield, physical characteristics, and fruit composition variability in Cabernet Sauvignon vineyards","volume":"73","author":"Sams","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Enol. Vitic."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Esteves, C., Fangueiro, D., Braga, R.P., Martins, M., Botelho, M., and Ribeiro, H. (2022). Assessing the contribution of ECa and NDVI in the delineation of management zones in a vineyard. Agronomy, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy12061331"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100005","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atech.2021.100005","article-title":"Smart applications and digital technologies in viticulture: A review","volume":"1","author":"Tardaguila","year":"2021","journal-title":"Smart Agric. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.3390\/agriengineering5010030","article-title":"Soil density characterization in management zones based on apparent soil electrical conductivity in two field systems: Rainfeed and center-pivot irrigation","volume":"5","author":"Bottega","year":"2023","journal-title":"AgriEngineering"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.2134\/agronj2003.4720","article-title":"Comparison of electromagnetic induction and direct sensing of soil electrical conductivity","volume":"95","author":"Sudduth","year":"2003","journal-title":"Agron. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Serrano, J., Marques, J., Shahidian, S., Carreira, E., Marques da Silva, J., Paix\u00e3o, L., Paniagua, L.L., Moral, F., Ferraz de Oliveira, I., and Sales-Baptista, E. (2023). Sensing and mapping the effects of cow trampling on the soil compaction of the montado Mediterranean ecosystem. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23020888"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.3390\/agriengineering5020047","article-title":"Impact of deferred versus continuous sheep grazing on soil compaction in the Mediterranean Montado ecosystem","volume":"5","author":"Serrano","year":"2023","journal-title":"AgriEngineering"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"e34989","article-title":"Soil penetration resistance mapping quality: Effect of the number of subsamples","volume":"40","author":"Pias","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Comparetti, A., and Marques da Silva, J.R. (2022). Use of Sentinel-2 satellite for spatially variable rate fertiliser management in a Sicilian vineyard. Sustainability, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/su14031688"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1353","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-021-09788-w","article-title":"Estimation of soil classes and their relationship to grapevine vigor in a Bordeaux vineyard: Advancing the practical joint use of electromagnetic induction (EMI) and NDVI datasets for precision viticulture","volume":"22","author":"Hubbard","year":"2021","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-021-09831-w","article-title":"Effects of intra-vineyard variability and soil heterogeneity on vine performance, dry matter and nutrient partitioning","volume":"23","author":"Gatti","year":"2022","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"FAO (2006). World Reference Base for Soil Resources, FAO. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Soil Resources Reports N 103."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1633","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-11-1633-2007","article-title":"Updated world map of the K\u00f6ppen-Geiger climate classification","volume":"11","author":"Peel","year":"2007","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"H\u00f6ppner, F., Klawonn, F., Kruse, R., and Runkler, T.A. (1999). Fuzzy Cluster Analysis, Wiley."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"100","article-title":"Management Zone Analyst (MZA): Software for subfield management zone delineation","volume":"96","author":"Fridgen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Agron. J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-012-9275-4","article-title":"Management zones delineation using fuzzy clustering techniques in grapevines","volume":"14","author":"Tagarakis","year":"2013","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"AOAC (2005). Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International, AOAC International. [18th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barriguinha, A., de Castro Neto, M., and Gil, A. (2021). Vineyard yield estimation, prediction, and forecasting: A systematic literature review. Agronomy, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy11091789"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cataldo, E., Fucile, M., and Mattii, G.B. (2021). A review: Soil management, sustainable strategies and approaches to improve the quality of modern viticulture. Agronomy, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy11112359"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-011-9220-y","article-title":"Using apparent soil electrical conductivity (ECa) to characterize vineyard soils of high clay content","volume":"12","author":"Plant","year":"2011","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.3390\/agriengineering1040041","article-title":"Integration of soil electrical conductivity and indices obtained through satellite imagery for differential management of pasture fertilization","volume":"1","author":"Serrano","year":"2019","journal-title":"AgriEngineering"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-012-9281-6","article-title":"Apparent electrical conductivity in dry versus wet soil conditions in a shallow soil","volume":"14","author":"Serrano","year":"2013","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1137731","DOI":"10.3389\/fsoil.2023.1137731","article-title":"Temporal and operation-induced instability of apparent soil electrical conductivity measurements","volume":"3","author":"Su","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Soil Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Serrano, J., Shahidian, S., Paix\u00e3o, L., Marques da Silva, J., and Moral, F. (2022). Management zones in pastures based on soil apparent electrical conductivity and altitude: NDVI, soil and biomass sampling validation. Agronomy, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy12040778"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2004.10.005","article-title":"Apparent soil electrical conductivity measurements in agriculture","volume":"46","author":"Corwin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1116","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-023-10002-2","article-title":"Identification of management zones with different potential moisture availability for sustainable intensification of dryland agriculture","volume":"24","author":"Farrel","year":"2023","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Krajco, J. (2007). Detection of Soil Compaction Using Soil Electrical Conductivity. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Cranfield University]."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pentos, K., Pieczarka, K., and Serwata, K. (2021). The relationship between soil electrical parameters and compaction of sandy clay loam soil. Agriculture, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture11020114"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1220","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-022-09984-2","article-title":"Investigation of the similarities between NDVI maps from different proximal and remote sensing platforms in explaining vineyard variability","volume":"24","author":"Kasimati","year":"2023","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1125","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-022-09877-4","article-title":"Spatiotemporal normalized ratio methodology to evaluate the impact of field-scale variable rate application","volume":"23","author":"Katz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsci.2020.08.019","article-title":"Assessment of the economic and environmental sustainability of Variable Rate Technology (VRT) application in different wheat intensive European agricultural areas. A Water energy food nexus approach","volume":"114","author":"Fabiani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Policy"}],"container-title":["Environments"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3298\/10\/7\/117\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:07:29Z","timestamp":1760126849000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3298\/10\/7\/117"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,6]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7]]}},"alternative-id":["environments10070117"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/environments10070117","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3298"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3298","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,6]]}}}