{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,19]],"date-time":"2026-03-19T00:00:14Z","timestamp":1773878414961,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":101,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773792000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Plano de Recupera\u00e7\u00e3o e Resili\u00eancia","award":["PRR-C05-i03-I-000239"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PRR-C05-i03-I-000239"]}]},{"name":"Plano de Recupera\u00e7\u00e3o e Resili\u00eancia","award":["SAP4_Refa_BL_44_2024_9435"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SAP4_Refa_BL_44_2024_9435"]}]},{"name":"Plano de Recupera\u00e7\u00e3o e Resili\u00eancia","award":["SAP4_Refa_BL_27_2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SAP4_Refa_BL_27_2025"]}]},{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia","award":["UID\/00239"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/00239"]}]},{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia","award":["LA\/P\/0092\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LA\/P\/0092\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia","award":["UID\/04129\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/04129\/2025"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Environments"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Almond hulls and shells are abundant by-products of the almond industry that could be valorized as bio-based absorbent polymers (BAP), offering a promising alternative to synthetic materials to improve water management in the agricultural setting. In this study, almond hulls and shells were pelletized in different proportions to assess pelletization feasibility and physical properties, followed by industrial-scale production of an industrialized formulation (80% hulls, 20% shells). Ecotoxicological risk was assessed using direct bioassays with whole pellets (germination with Lactuca sativa and Zea mays; acute toxicity with Eisenia fetida) and indirect bioassays with pellet water extracts (germination with L. sativa, immobilization with Daphnia magna, and bioluminescence inhibition with Vibrio fischeri). Field trials were conducted in an irrigated almond orchard to evaluate soil moisture dynamics and plant water status under different BAP application rates and irrigation regimes. Pelletization increased the soil\u2019s water-holding capacity in the laboratory test and soil moisture in the field, even under reduced irrigation. However, ecotoxicological assays revealed significant to high acute toxicity at higher concentrations, depending on the organism and exposure pathway. Almond hull and shell pellets show potential to improve soil water retention and reduce irrigation demand but require cautious application and further testing to mitigate ecotoxicological risks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/environments13030168","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T17:12:26Z","timestamp":1773853946000},"page":"168","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Application of Bio-Absorbent Polymer from Almond Industry By-Products on Soil: A First Approach"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-3133-997X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana T.","family":"Caeiro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Estudos Florestais, Laborat\u00f3rio Associado TERRA, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Universidade de Lisboa, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0657-3638","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ricardo A.","family":"Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Estudos Florestais, Laborat\u00f3rio Associado TERRA, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Universidade de Lisboa, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3225-3358","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paula","family":"Alvarenga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food Research Centre, Laborat\u00f3rio Associado TERRA, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Universidade de Lisboa, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2670-6207","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rosalina","family":"Mar\u00e3o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro Nacional de Compet\u00eancias dos Frutos Secos, Edif\u00edcio do Brigantia EcoPark, Av. Cidade de Le\u00f3n, n\u00ba 506, 5300-358 Bragan\u00e7a, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5215-785X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Albino","family":"Bento","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro Nacional de Compet\u00eancias dos Frutos Secos, Edif\u00edcio do Brigantia EcoPark, Av. Cidade de Le\u00f3n, n\u00ba 506, 5300-358 Bragan\u00e7a, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Nuno","family":"Saraiva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veracruz, Rua Filarmonica Idanhense, 68, 6060-188 Idanha-a-Nova, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Francisco","family":"Marques","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veracruz, Rua Filarmonica Idanhense, 68, 6060-188 Idanha-a-Nova, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Jorge","family":"Rebelo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veracruz, Rua Filarmonica Idanhense, 68, 6060-188 Idanha-a-Nova, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Andr\u00e9","family":"Encarna\u00e7\u00e3o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veracruz Agrestate, Rua Filarmonica Idanhense, 68, 6060-188 Idanha-a-Nova, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Edmundo","family":"Marques","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Research in Digital Services (CISeD), Polytechnic Institute of Viseu, 3504-510 Viseu, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1758-0860","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlos","family":"Pereira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Research in Digital Services (CISeD), Polytechnic Institute of Viseu, 3504-510 Viseu, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3419-6075","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jorge","family":"Gominho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Estudos Florestais, Laborat\u00f3rio Associado TERRA, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Universidade de Lisboa, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8735","DOI":"10.1007\/s11947-025-03955-x","article-title":"Production of Filamentous Fungal Biomass (Aspergillus awamori) in Pellet Form from Almond Hull Extract","volume":"18","author":"Cao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Bioproc. 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