{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]],"date-time":"2026-02-23T23:43:10Z","timestamp":1771890190657,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,4]],"date-time":"2025-10-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759536000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Future Internet"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The rapid growth of urban populations intensifies congestion, air pollution, and energy demand. Green mobility is central to sustainable smart cities, and the Internet of Things (IoT) offers a means to monitor, coordinate, and optimize transport systems in real time. This paper presents an Internet of Things (IoT)-based architecture integrating heterogeneous sensing with edge\u2013cloud orchestration and AI-driven control for green routing and coordinated Electric Vehicle (EV) charging. The framework supports adaptive traffic management, energy-aware charging, and multimodal integration through standards-aware interfaces and auditable Key Performance Indicators (KPIs). We hypothesize that, relative to a static shortest-path baseline, the integrated green routing and EV-charging coordination reduce (H1) mean travel time per trip by \u22657%, (H2) CO2 intensity (g\/km) by \u22656%, and (H3) station peak load by \u226520% under moderate-to-high demand conditions. These hypotheses are tested in Simulation of Urban MObility (SUMO) with Handbook Emission Factors for Road Transport (HBEFA) emission classes, using 10 independent random seeds and reporting means with 95% confidence intervals and formal significance testing. The results confirm the hypotheses: average travel time decreases by approximately 9.8%, CO2 intensity by approximately 8%, and peak load by approximately 25% under demand multipliers \u22651.2 and EV shares \u226520%. Gains are attenuated under light demand, where congestion effects are weaker. We further discuss scalability, interoperability, privacy\/security, and the simulation-to-deployment gap, and outline priorities for reproducible field pilots. In summary, a pragmatic edge\u2013cloud IoT stack has the potential to lower congestion, reduce per-kilometer emissions, and smooth charging demand, provided it is supported by reliable data integration, resilient edge services, and standards-compliant interoperability, thereby contributing to sustainable urban mobility in line with the objectives of SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/fi17100457","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,6]],"date-time":"2025-10-06T13:33:41Z","timestamp":1759757621000},"page":"457","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["An IoT Architecture for Sustainable Urban Mobility: Towards Energy-Aware and Low-Emission Smart Cities"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8872-5721","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuel J. C. S.","family":"Reis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Engineering Department and IEETA, University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8434-4887","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Frederico","family":"Branco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Engineering Department and INESC-TEC, University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1568-368X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nishu","family":"Gupta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cybernetics and Biomedical Engineering, VSB\u2014Technical University of Ostrava, 17. listopadu 2172\/15, 708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4632-9664","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlos","family":"Ser\u00f4dio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Engineering Department and Center ALGORITMI, University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1186\/s12544-023-00610-4","article-title":"Sustainable Mobility in Smart Cities: A Document Study of Mobility Initiatives of Mid-Sized Nordic Smart Cities","volume":"15","author":"Kosmidis","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. Transp. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Waqar, A., Barakat, T.A.H., Almujibah, H.R., Alshehri, A.M., Alyami, H., and Alajmi, M. (2025). Analytical Approach to Smart and Sustainable City Development with IoT. Sci. Rep., 15.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-08861-y"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104917","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rineng.2025.104917","article-title":"Advancing Sustainable Cities and Communities with Internet of Things: Global Insights, Trends, and Research Priorities for SDG 11","volume":"26","author":"Zyoud","year":"2025","journal-title":"Results Eng."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fub.2025.100102","article-title":"Role, Application and Challenges of IoT in Smart EV Charging Management:A Review","volume":"7","author":"Kunj","year":"2025","journal-title":"Future Batter."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharma, A., Rani, S., and Shabaz, M. (2025). Artificial Intelligence-Augmented Smart Grid Architecture for Cyber Intrusion Detection and Mitigation in Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure. Sci. Rep., 15.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-04984-4"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guerrero-Silva, J.A., Romero-Gelvez, J.I., Aristiz\u00e1bal, A.J., and Zapata, S. (2025). Optimization and Trends in EV Charging Infrastructure: A PCA-Based Systematic Review. World Electr. Veh. J., 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/wevj16070345"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dauda, A., Flauzac, O., and Nolot, F. (2024). A Survey on IoT Application Architectures. Sensors, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/s24165320"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103949","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2022.103949","article-title":"A Systematic Survey of Internet of Things Frameworks for Smart City Applications","volume":"83","author":"Walther","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1007\/s44327-024-00002-w","article-title":"IoT-Enabled Smart Cities: A Hybrid Systematic Analysis of Key Research Areas, Challenges, and Recommendations for Future Direction","volume":"1","author":"Omrany","year":"2024","journal-title":"Discov. Cities"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.inffus.2025.103102","article-title":"A Survey on Data Fusion Approaches in IoT-Based Smart Cities: Smart Applications, Taxonomies, Challenges, and Future Research Directions","volume":"121","author":"Cengiz","year":"2025","journal-title":"Inf. Fusion."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36416","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3162219","article-title":"A Survey of Interoperability Challenges and Solutions for Dealing With Them in IoT Environment","volume":"10","author":"Albouq","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Ishaq, K., and Farooq, S.S. (2023). Exploring IoT in Smart Cities: Practices, Challenges and Way Forward. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1462","DOI":"10.3390\/smartcities7030061","article-title":"A Review of IoT-Based Smart City Development and Management","volume":"7","author":"Zaman","year":"2024","journal-title":"Smart Cities"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kostrzewski, M., Marczewska, M., and Uden, L. (2023). The Internet of Vehicles and Sustainability\u2014Reflections on Environmental, Social, and Corporate Governance. Energies, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/en16073208"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mishra, P., and Singh, G. (2025). Internet of Vehicles for Sustainable Smart Cities: Opportunities, Issues, and Challenges. Smart Cities, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/smartcities8030093"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1700","DOI":"10.26599\/TST.2024.9010083","article-title":"Security Challenges in Internet of Vehicles (IoV) for ITS: A Survey","volume":"30","author":"Khezri","year":"2025","journal-title":"Tsinghua Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mazzetto, S. (2024). A Review of Urban Digital Twins Integration, Challenges, and Future Directions in Smart City Development. Sustainability, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/su16198337"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100040","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dte.2025.100040","article-title":"A Comprehensive Review of Digital Twin Technologies in Smart Cities","volume":"4","author":"Huzzat","year":"2025","journal-title":"Digit. Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106356","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2025.106356","article-title":"Global Perspectives on Digital Twin Smart Cities: Innovations, Challenges, and Pathways to a Sustainable Urban Future","volume":"126","author":"Alvi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zeng, F., Pang, C., and Tang, H. (2024). Sensors on Internet of Things Systems for the Sustainable Development of Smart Cities: A Systematic Literature Review. Sensors, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/s24072074"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2816","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2816","article-title":"IoT in Urban Development: Insight into Smart City Applications, Case Studies, Challenges, and Future Prospects","volume":"11","author":"Salih","year":"2025","journal-title":"PeerJ Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1007\/s43926-024-00076-3","article-title":"Smart Cities and the IoT: An in-Depth Analysis of Global Research Trends and Future Directions","volume":"4","author":"Bhardwaj","year":"2024","journal-title":"Discov. Internet Things"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2476841","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/2476841","article-title":"5G System Overview for Ongoing Smart Applications: Structure, Requirements, and Specifications","volume":"2022","author":"Attar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Intell. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e4770","DOI":"10.1002\/ett.4770","article-title":"Ultra-Reliability and Low-Latency Communications on the Internet of Things Based on 5G Network: Literature Review, Classification, and Future Research View","volume":"34","author":"Sefati","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trans. Emerg. Telecommun. Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, M.J., Khan, M.A., Malik, S., Kulkarni, P., Alkaabi, N., Ullah, O., El-Sayed, H., Ahmed, A., and Turaev, S. (2023). Advancing C-V2X for Level 5 Autonomous Driving from the Perspective of 3GPP Standards. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23042261"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Murroni, M., Anedda, M., Fadda, M., Ruiu, P., Popescu, V., Zaharia, C., and Giusto, D. (2023). 6G\u2014Enabling the New Smart City: A Survey. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23177528"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110916","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2024.110916","article-title":"Towards 6G Vehicular Networks: Vision, Technologies, and Open Challenges","volume":"257","author":"Lang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ficzere, D., Varga, P., Wippelhauser, A., Hejazi, H., Csernyava, O., Kov\u00e1cs, A., and Heged\u0171s, C. (2023). Large-Scale Cellular Vehicle-to-Everything Deployments Based on 5G\u2014Critical Challenges, Solutions, and Vision towards 6G: A Survey. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23167031"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2017.2771153","article-title":"A Comprehensive Survey on Fog Computing: State-of-the-Art and Research Challenges","volume":"20","author":"Mouradian","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Trigka, M., and Dritsas, E. (2025). Edge and Cloud Computing in Smart Cities. Future Internet., 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/fi17030118"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2","DOI":"10.4108\/eetsc.v6i18.1197","article-title":"Cloud-Edge Orchestration for Smart Cities: A Review of Kubernetes-Based Orchestration Architectures","volume":"6","author":"Wirtz","year":"2022","journal-title":"EAI Endorsed Trans. Smart Cities"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lopez, P.A., Behrisch, M., Bieker-Walz, L., Erdmann, J., Fl\u00f6tter\u00f6d, Y.-P., Hilbrich, R., L\u00fccken, L., Rummel, J., Wagner, P., and Wiessner, E. (2018, January 4\u20137). Microscopic Traffic Simulation Using SUMO. Proceedings of the 2018 21st International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC), Maui, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITSC.2018.8569938"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Sutanto, D., and Chao, C. (2018). Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Informatics, Environment, Energy and Applications, Association for Computing Machinery."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"(2025, September 03). HBEFA-Handbook Emission Factors for Road Transport. Available online: https:\/\/www.hbefa.net\/."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Athanasiadis, I.N., Rizzoli, A.E., Mitkas, P.A., and G\u00f3mez, J.M. (2009). COPERT: A European Road Transport Emission Inventory Model. Information Technologies in Environmental Engineering, Springer. Environmental Science and Engineering."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1393","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2013.2262376","article-title":"Predicting Taxi\u2013Passenger Demand Using Streaming Data","volume":"14","author":"Gama","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2025, September 03). Openaq.Org. Available online: https:\/\/openaq.org\/."}],"container-title":["Future Internet"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-5903\/17\/10\/457\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,6]],"date-time":"2025-10-06T13:52:15Z","timestamp":1759758735000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-5903\/17\/10\/457"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,4]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]}},"alternative-id":["fi17100457"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/fi17100457","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-5903"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-5903","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,4]]}}}