{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T15:33:19Z","timestamp":1772033599762,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771977600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Biofund","award":["N\u00ba5\/BIOFUND\/SUB\/PROMOVE\/21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N\u00ba5\/BIOFUND\/SUB\/PROMOVE\/21"]}]},{"name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia","award":["UID\/00239\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/00239\/2025"]}]},{"name":"PLCM\u2014Programa de Lideran\u00e7a para a Conserva\u00e7\u00e3o de Mo\u00e7ambique and Associate Laboratory TERRA","award":["LA\/P\/0092\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LA\/P\/0092\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Fire"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Gil\u00e9 National Park (PNAG for its acronym in Portuguese), located in central Mozambique is one of the most important protected areas in the country. It is one of the last remnants of intact Miombo woodlands, providing critical habitat for endemic biodiversity. Fires are an important ecological factor in Miombo, but changes in fire regimes may compromise the stability of this ecosystem and thus, the conservation value of PNAG. This study assessed fire patterns and mapped fire risk in support of adaptive management in the PNAG. We investigated Miombo fire regime over 23 years (2001 to 2023) in terms of return interval, frequency, temporal distribution, spatial density and intensity, extent, and severity, by using two Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite products (MCD14ML active fire; MCD64A1 burned area). Primary risk drivers were established and spatial fire likelihood mapped, using the Random Forest algorithm. Analysis revealed pronounced late dry season burning (August\u2013October) affecting approximately 60% of the PNAG annually, especially in central-northern and eastern landscapes. Remarkably, 88% of the park maintains a 1-to-2-year fire return interval across the entire fire season (May\u2013October) while only 7% maintains return frequencies of 3-to-4-year cycles. The latter is important for maintaining Miombo ecosystem functionality. Medium to medium\u2013high fire severity covered 98% of the total fire extension. Climate-related drivers and hunting activities were identified as key fire initiators, especially in central areas of the park. The findings demonstrate an urgent need for spatially differentiated fire management action through prescribed burning to maintain PNAG\u2019s ecological resilience and conservation value.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/fire9030099","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T13:37:37Z","timestamp":1772026657000},"page":"99","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Exploring the Fire Regime in Gil\u00e9 National Park, Zamb\u00e9zia Province, Central Mozambique"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-4812-637X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o C.","family":"Domingos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Engenharia Florestal, Faculdade de Agronomia e Engenharia Florestal, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane Campus Universit\u00e1rio Principal, Building # 1, Maputo CP 257, Mozambique"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7859-3430","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fr\u00e9d\u00e9rique","family":"Montfort","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"N\u2019Lab, Nitid\u00e6, 34090 Montpellier, France"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3513-3036","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S\u00e1 N.","family":"Lisboa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Engenharia Florestal, Faculdade de Agronomia e Engenharia Florestal, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane Campus Universit\u00e1rio Principal, Building # 1, Maputo CP 257, Mozambique"},{"name":"N\u2019Lab, Nitid\u00e6, 34090 Montpellier, France"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9540-980X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Victorino","family":"Buramuge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Engenharia Florestal, Faculdade de Agronomia e Engenharia Florestal, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane Campus Universit\u00e1rio Principal, Building # 1, Maputo CP 257, Mozambique"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7699-0501","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Annae","family":"Senkoro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Ci\u00eancias Biol\u00f3gicas, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo CP 257, Mozambique"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5370-965X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ivete S.","family":"Maquia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo CP 257, Mozambique"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6071-6460","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana I.","family":"Ribeiro-Barros","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Estudos Florestais, Laborat\u00f3rio Associado TERRA, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Universidade de Lisboa, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5369-5905","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Natasha S.","family":"Ribeiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Engenharia Florestal, Faculdade de Agronomia e Engenharia Florestal, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane Campus Universit\u00e1rio Principal, Building # 1, Maputo CP 257, Mozambique"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Campbell, B. (1996). The Ecology of Miombo Woodlands. The Miombo in Transition: Woodlands and Welfare in Africa, Center for International Forestry Research."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ribeiro, N.S., Katerere, Y., Chirwa, P.W., and Grundy, I.M. (2020). Scenarios for Just and Sustainable Futures in the Miombo Woodlands. Miombo Woodlands in a Changing Environment: Securing the Resilience and Sustainability of People and Woodlands, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-50104-4"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ribeiro, N.S., Katerere, Y., Grundy, I.M., and Chirwa, P.W. (2020). Miombo Woodlands in a Changing Environment: Securing the Resilience and Sustainability of People and Woodlands, Springer Nature.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-50104-4"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aquino, A., Lim, C., Kaechele, K., and Taquidir, M. (2018). Mozambique Country Forest Note, World Bank.","DOI":"10.1596\/30935"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103599","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actao.2020.103599","article-title":"Sudanian versus Zambezian woodlands of Africa: Composition, ecology, biogeography and use","volume":"107","author":"Azihou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Oecologica"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1080\/19390450903350846","article-title":"Managing the Miombo Woodlands of Southern Africa: Policies, Incentives and Options for the Rural Poor","volume":"2","author":"Dewees","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Nat. Resour. Policy Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1186\/1750-0680-8-11","article-title":"Monitoring vegetation dynamics and carbon stock density in miombo woodlands","volume":"8","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2013","journal-title":"Carbon Balance Manag."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buramuge, V.A., Ribeiro, N.S., Olsson, L., Bandeira, R.R., and Lisboa, S.N. (2023). Tree Species Composition and Diversity in Fire-Affected Areas of Miombo Woodlands, Central Mozambique. Fire, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/fire6010026"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1177\/0309133308101383","article-title":"Savanna burning and the assessment of long-term fire experiments with particular reference to Zimbabwe","volume":"32","author":"Furley","year":"2008","journal-title":"Prog. Phys. Geogr. Earth Environ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1779","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2007.0026","article-title":"Interactions between rainfall, deforestation and fires during recent years in the Brazilian Amazonia","volume":"363","author":"Malhi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Frost, P.G.H., and Robertson, F. (1987). The Ecological Effects of Fire in Savannas. Determinants of Tropical Savannas, IRL Press."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1626","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2007.11.033","article-title":"The effects of fire and elephants on species composition and structure of the Niassa Reserve, northern Mozambique","volume":"255","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2008","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meneses, O.M., Ribeiro, N.S., Shirvani, Z., and Andrew, S.M. (2024). Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Wildfire Regimes in Miombo of the LevasFlor Forest Concession, Central Mozambique. Fire, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/fire7080264"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"WF24060","DOI":"10.1071\/WF24060","article-title":"Insights on the dynamics of Miombo woody vegetation in Niassa Special Reserve, northern Mozambique","volume":"34","author":"Salimo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Wildland Fire"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Miombo Network (2016). Using & Restoring the Miombo Woodlands: Needs for an Integrated and Holistic Approach in Ecosystem Management for Long Term Sustainability; 5203881 Bytes, Miombo Network."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.2174\/1874213001003020006","article-title":"Paleoecological Perspectives on Fire Ecology: Revisiting the Fire-Regime Concept","volume":"3","author":"Whitlock","year":"2010","journal-title":"Open Ecol. J."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1016\/j.quascirev.2008.11.005","article-title":"Reconstructing past fire regimes: Methods, applications, and relevance to fire management and conservation","volume":"28","author":"Conedera","year":"2009","journal-title":"Quat. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1007\/s12064-010-0082-z","article-title":"Fire regime: History and definition of a key concept in disturbance ecology","volume":"129","author":"Krebs","year":"2010","journal-title":"Theory Biosci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1071\/WF07049","article-title":"Fire intensity, fire severity and burn severity: A brief review and suggested usage","volume":"18","author":"Keeley","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Wildland Fire"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"458","article-title":"Effects of repeated burning on woody vegetation structure and composition in a semi-arid southern African savanna","volume":"2","author":"Gandiwa","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1525\/bio.2009.59.7.10","article-title":"A Burning Story: The Role of Fire in the History of Life","volume":"59","author":"Pausas","year":"2009","journal-title":"BioScience"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2664.2006.01184.x","article-title":"The effect of fire season, fire frequency, rainfall and management on fire intensity in savanna vegetation in South Africa","volume":"43","author":"Govender","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Appl. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Macave, O.A., Ribeiro, N.S., Ribeiro, A.I., Cha\u00faque, A., Bandeira, R., Branquinho, C., and Washington-Allen, R. (2022). Modelling Aboveground Biomass of Miombo Woodlands in Niassa Special Reserve, Northern Mozambique. Forests, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/f13020311"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.5380\/rf.v41i3.24049","article-title":"Modelo de zoneamento de risco de inc\u00eandios para unidades de conserva\u00e7\u00e3o brasileiras: O Caso do Parque Estadual Do Cerrado (Pr)","volume":"41","author":"Koproski","year":"2011","journal-title":"Floresta"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1590\/S0100-67622011000100017","article-title":"Correla\u00e7\u00f5es entre os elementos meteorol\u00f3gicos e as ocorr\u00eancias de inc\u00eandios florestais na \u00e1rea urbana de Juiz de Fora, MG","volume":"35","author":"Torres","year":"2011","journal-title":"Rev. \u00c1rvore"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vallejo-Villalta, I., Rodr\u00edguez-Navas, E., and M\u00e1rquez-P\u00e9rez, J. (2019). Mapping Forest Fire Risk at a Local Scale\u2014A Case Study in Andalusia (Spain). Environments, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/environments6030030"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20150312","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2015.0312","article-title":"Ecosystem services from southern African woodlands and their future under global change","volume":"371","author":"Ryan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Novo, A., Fari\u00f1as-\u00c1lvarez, N., Mart\u00ednez-S\u00e1nchez, J., Gonz\u00e1lez-Jorge, H., Fern\u00e1ndez-Alonso, J.M., and Lorenzo, H. (2020). Mapping Forest Fire Risk\u2014A Case Study in Galicia (Spain). Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12223705"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.02.013","article-title":"Historical background and current developments for mapping burned area from satellite Earth observation","volume":"225","author":"Chuvieco","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Ribeiro, N.S., Shugart, H.H., Swap, R.J., and Okin, G.S. (2007). Five-Year Period of Fire Regime in the Miombo Woodlands of Niassa Reserve, Mozambique in Northern Mozambique. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Virginia]."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2005.02.004","article-title":"Comparison of burned area estimates derived from SPOT-VEGETATION and Landsat ETM+ data in Africa: Influence of spatial pattern and vegetation type","volume":"96","author":"Silva","year":"2005","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2486.2008.01754.x","article-title":"What limits fire? An examination of drivers of burnt area in Southern Africa","volume":"15","author":"Archibald","year":"2009","journal-title":"Glob. Change Biol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meneses, O.M., Ribeiro, N.S., Shirvani, Z., and Andrew, S.M. (2025). Resilience of the Miombo Woodland to Different Fire Frequencies in the LevasFlor Forest Concession, Central Mozambique. Forests, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/f16010010"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1002\/jgrg.20042","article-title":"Analysis of daily, monthly, and annual burned area using the fourth-generation global fire emissions database (GFED4)","volume":"118","author":"Giglio","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1356","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aal4108","article-title":"A human-driven decline in global burned area","volume":"356","author":"Andela","year":"2017","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Administra\u00e7\u00e3o Nacional das \u00c1reas de Conserva\u00e7\u00e3o (ANAC) (2024). Plano de Maneio do Parque Nacional do Gile 2024\u20142033 Versao Final, CEAGRE."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Mercier, C., Grinand, C., Randrianary, T., Nourtier, M., and Rabany, C. (2016). Background Study for the Preparation of the Zamb\u00e9zia Integrated Landscapes Management Program, Etc Terra. Report for Government of Mozambique and FCPF."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119039","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2021.119039","article-title":"Regeneration capacities of woody species biodiversity and soil properties in Miombo woodland after slash-and-burn agriculture in Mozambique","volume":"488","author":"Montfort","year":"2021","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2397","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-15-00324.1","article-title":"Climate Engine: Cloud Computing and Visualization of Climate and Remote Sensing Data for Advanced Natural Resource Monitoring and Process Understanding","volume":"98","author":"Huntington","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Pungulanhe, L.A. (2020). Caracteriza\u00e7\u00e3o da Vegeta\u00e7\u00e3o Arb\u00f3rea sob Diferentes Regimes de Queimadas na Floresta de Miombo, Reserva nacional do Gil\u00e9. [Master Thesis, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane]."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tfp.2022.100290","article-title":"Regeneration and Restoration Status of Miombo Woodland Following Land Use Land Cover Changes at the Buffer Zone of Gile National Park, Central Mozambique","volume":"9","author":"Ameja","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trees For. People"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Giglio, L., Schroeder, W., Hall, J.V., and Justice, C.O. (2018). MODIS Collection 6 Active Fire Product User\u2019s Guide Revision B, NASA."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(03)00184-6","article-title":"An Enhanced Contextual Fire Detection Algorithm for MODIS","volume":"87","author":"Giglio","year":"2003","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3690","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2008.05.013","article-title":"The collection 5 MODIS burned area product\u2014Global evaluation by comparison with the MODIS active fire product","volume":"112","author":"Roy","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2711","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2008.01.005","article-title":"Validation of GOES and MODIS active fire detection products using ASTER and ETM+ data","volume":"112","author":"Schroeder","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"QGIS Development Team (2024, November 10). QGIS Geographic Information System, Available online: https:\/\/www.qgis.org\/en\/site\/."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Montfort, F. (2021). Dynamiques des Paysages Forestiers au Mozambique: \u00c9tude de L\u2019\u00e9cologie du Miombo Pour Contribuer aux Strat\u00e9gies de Restauration des Terres D\u00e9grad\u00e9es. [Doctorate Thesis, L\u2019UPR For\u00eats et Soci\u00e9t\u00e9s]. Available online: https:\/\/revues.cirad.fr\/index.php\/BFT\/article\/view\/37281."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Running, S., Mu, Q., and Zhao, M. (2017). MOD16A2 MODIS\/Terra Net Evapotranspiration 8-Day L4 Global 500m SIN Grid V006, NASA Land Processes Distributed Active Archive Center."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tiecke, T.G., Liu, X., Zhang, A., Gros, A., Li, N., Yetman, G., Kilic, T., Murray, S., Blankespoor, B., and Prydz, E.B. (2017). Mapping the World Population One Building at a Time, World Bank.","DOI":"10.1596\/33700"},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"R Core Team (2023, November 02). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing, Available online: https:\/\/www.R-project.org\/."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.02.054","article-title":"The collection 6 MODIS active fire detection algorithm and fire products","volume":"178","author":"Giglio","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2005.04.025","article-title":"Fire as a global \u2018herbivore\u2019: The ecology and evolution of flammable ecosystems","volume":"20","author":"Bond","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trends Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1983","DOI":"10.1111\/brv.12544","article-title":"Fire as a key driver of Earth\u2019s biodiversity","volume":"94","author":"He","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1021","DOI":"10.1071\/WF17085","article-title":"Characterisation of spatial and temporal distribution of the fire regime in Niassa National Reserve, northern Mozambique","volume":"26","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Wildland Fire"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1029\/2005JD006318","article-title":"Retrieval of biomass combustion rates and totals from fire radiative power observations: FRP derivation and calibration relationships between biomass consumption and fire radiative energy release","volume":"110","author":"Wooster","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva Junior, C.H.L., Arag\u00e3o, L.E.O.C., Fonseca, M.G., Almeida, C.T., Vedovato, L.B., and Anderson, L.O. (2018). Deforestation-Induced Fragmentation Increases Forest Fire Occurrence in Central Brazilian Amazonia. Forests, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/f9060305"},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Goryl, P., Buongiorno, A., Santella, C., Fournier-Sicre, V., and Santacesaria, V. (2012). Active Fire: Fire Detection and Fire Radiative Power Assessment, King\u2019s College London."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"United Nations Platform for Space-Based Information for Disaster Management and Emergency Response (UN-SPIDER) (2023). Recommended Practice: Burn Severity Mapping. Step-by-Step: Burn Severity in Google Earth Engine, United Nations. Available online: https:\/\/un-spider.org\/advisory-support\/recommended-practices\/recommended-practice-burn-severity\/burn-severity-earth-engine."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lutes, D.C., Keane, R.E., Caratti, J.F., Key, C.H., Benson, N.C., Sutherland, S., and Gangi, L.J. (2006). FIREMON: Fire Effects Monitoring and Inventory System, (No. RMRS-GTR-164; p. RMRS-GTR-164).","DOI":"10.2737\/RMRS-GTR-164"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1007\/s12145-020-00566-2","article-title":"Inter comparison of post-fire burn severity indices of Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2 imagery using Google Earth Engine","volume":"14","author":"Konkathi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Earth Sci. Inform."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Key, C.H., and Benson, N. (2006). Landscape Assessment: Ground Measure of Severity, the Composite Burn Index; and Remote Sensing of Severity, the Normalized Burn Ratio, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010933404324","article-title":"Random Forests","volume":"45","author":"Breiman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mach. Learn."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"18","article-title":"Classification and Regression by randomForest","volume":"2","author":"Liaw","year":"2002","journal-title":"R News"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2012.03.003","article-title":"Modeling spatial patterns of fire occurrence in Mediterranean Europe using Multiple Regression and Random Forest","volume":"275","author":"Oliveira","year":"2012","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsoft.2014.03.003","article-title":"An insight into machine-learning algorithms to model human-caused wildfire occurrence","volume":"57","author":"Rodrigues","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Model. Softw."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2783","DOI":"10.1890\/07-0539.1","article-title":"Random forests for classification in ecology","volume":"88","author":"Cutler","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"6007","article-title":"Random forests with spatial proxies for environmental modelling: Opportunities and pitfalls","volume":"17","author":"Ludwig","year":"2024","journal-title":"Earth Space Sci. Inform."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Silva, I.S., Garcia, C.A.B., de Sousa, F.E.R., do Patroc\u00ednio, H.A.J., and Garcia, H.L. (2019, January 18\u201322). Aplica\u00e7\u00e3o do Algoritmo Random Forest na Avalia\u00e7\u00e3o de Corpos H\u00eddricos no Estado de Sergipe. Proceedings of the 12th Water Resources Meeting, Sergipe, Brazil."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39721","DOI":"10.34117\/bjdv8n5-457","article-title":"Aplica\u00e7\u00e3o de algoritmos de Random Forest no suporte \u00e0 identifica\u00e7\u00e3o das esp\u00e9cies Handroanthus Serratifolius (Vahl) SO Grose e Handroanthus Impetiginosus (Mart. Ex DC.) Mattos (bignoniaceae)","volume":"8","author":"Siqueira","year":"2022","journal-title":"Braz. J. Dev."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Hijmans, R.J. (2023, November 30). Raster: Geographic Data Analysis and Modeling, Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/rspatial\/raster."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.2989\/10220119.2021.2000026","article-title":"Intentions behind common and risky fires in south-eastern Tanzania","volume":"39","author":"Wood","year":"2022","journal-title":"Afr. J. Range Forage Sci."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Magadzire, N. (2013). Reconstruction of a Fire Regime Using MODIS Burned Area Data: Charara Safari Area, Zimbabwe. [Ph.D. Thesis, Stellenbosch University]. Available online: http:\/\/scholar.sun.ac.za."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1890\/09-1489.1","article-title":"How does fire intensity and frequency affect miombo woodland tree populations and biomass?","volume":"21","author":"Ryan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ecol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3231","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160310001632666","article-title":"Mapping fire scars in a southern African savannah using Landsat imagery","volume":"25","author":"Hudak","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaridenv.2010.03.009","article-title":"Savanna fire regimes assessment with MODIS fire data: Their relationship to land cover and plant species distribution in western Burkina Faso (West Africa)","volume":"74","author":"Devineau","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Arid. Environ."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2004.01.009","article-title":"A simulation analysis of the detectability of understory burns in miombo woodlands","volume":"93","author":"Pereira","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1890\/0012-9658(2003)084[0337:EOFAHO]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Effects of fire and herbivory on the stability of savanna ecosystems","volume":"84","author":"Kumar","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ecology"}],"container-title":["Fire"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2571-6255\/9\/3\/99\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T13:50:41Z","timestamp":1772027441000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2571-6255\/9\/3\/99"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]]},"references-count":77,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]}},"alternative-id":["fire9030099"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/fire9030099","relation":{},"ISSN":["2571-6255"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2571-6255","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]]}}}