{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,27]],"date-time":"2026-01-27T02:53:19Z","timestamp":1769482399005,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":124,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,23]],"date-time":"2026-01-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769126400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"project HIPPONUTRE \u201cCultivo do cavalo marinho de focinho comprido, Hippocampus guttulatus: Optimiza\u00e7\u00e3o zoot\u00e9cnica e avalia\u00e7\u00e3o de requisitos nutricionais\u201d","award":["MAR2020-16-02-01-FMP-54"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MAR2020-16-02-01-FMP-54"]}]},{"name":"FCT\u2014Foundation for Science and Technology","award":["UIDB\/04326\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04326\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\u2014Foundation for Science and Technology","award":["LA\/P\/0101\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LA\/P\/0101\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Fishes"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study evaluated the effects of copepod use and copepod conditioning strategies on the growth and survival of long-snouted seahorse (Hippocampus guttulatus) juveniles from 1 to 60 days post-parturition (DPP). Four dietary treatments were tested: Artemia enriched for 24 h with Isochrysis galbana (control), daily collected copepods, copepods unfed for 48 h, and copepods enriched for 24 h with I. galbana. Juveniles fed copepod-based diets exhibited significantly higher growth and survival (p &lt; 0.05) than those fed enriched Artemia. Mean standard length increased from 1.3 \u00b1 0.1 cm at release to 5.9 \u00b1 0.2, 7.5 \u00b1 1.4, 7.1 \u00b1 1.2, and 7.3 \u00b1 1.1 cm at 60 DPP for the enriched Artemia, daily collected copepods, unfed copepods, and enriched copepods treatments, respectively. Wet weight increased from 0.002 \u00b1 0.001 g to 0.44 \u00b1 0.07, 0.81 \u00b1 0.40, 0.68 \u00b1 0.30, and 0.76 \u00b1 0.40 g, while final survival reached 20%, 60%, 33.3%, and 56%, respectively. Compared with enriched Artemia, copepod-based diets markedly enhanced juvenile performance, supporting faster growth and promoting favorable behavioral traits that contributed to improved survival. These results demonstrate that copepods constitute a superior live feed for early juvenile H. guttulatus; however, copepod conditioning strategies directly influence their nutritional quality and, consequently, seahorse growth and survival. The use of copepods throughout the first 60 DPP is therefore not only feasible but strongly recommended for optimizing juvenile H. guttulatus rearing performance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/fishes11020072","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,26]],"date-time":"2026-01-26T16:13:48Z","timestamp":1769444028000},"page":"72","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Copepod\/Artemia Trade-Off in the Culture of Long Snouted Seahorse Hippocampus guttulatus"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5790-3433","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jorge","family":"Palma","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Ci\u00eancias do Mar do Algarve (CCMAR\/CIMAR LA), Campus de Gambelas, Universidade do Algarve, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3023-5540","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ismael","family":"Hachero-Cruzado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IFAPA Centro El Toru\u00f1o, Junta de Andaluc\u00eda, Camino Tiro Pich\u00f3n s\/n, 11500 El Pto de Sta Mar\u00eda, C\u00e1diz, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1846-1174","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miguel","family":"Correia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Seahorse, Pipefish, and Seadragon Specialist Group, IUCN Species Survival Commission, 1196 Gland, Switzerland"},{"name":"Project Seahorse, Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5482-9776","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Pedro","family":"Andrade","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Ci\u00eancias do Mar do Algarve (CCMAR\/CIMAR LA), Campus de Gambelas, Universidade do Algarve, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Vincent, A.C.J. (1996). The International Trade in Seahorses, TRAFFIC International."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1002\/aqc.2493","article-title":"Opportunities and challenges for analysis of wildlife trade using CITES data\u2014Seahorses as a case study","volume":"26","author":"Foster","year":"2016","journal-title":"Aquat. Conserv. Mar. Freshw. Ecosyst."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1681","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1095-8649.2011.03003.x","article-title":"Conservation and management of seahorses and other Syngnathidae","volume":"78","author":"Vincent","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Fish Biol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpol.2017.10.031","article-title":"Assessing the changes in international trade of marine fishes under CITES regulations\u2014A case study of seahorses","volume":"88","author":"Kuo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mar. Policy"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1080\/03632415.2017.1259944","article-title":"Low bycatch rates add up to big numbers for a genus of small fishes","volume":"42","author":"Lawson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Fisheries"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734965","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2020.734965","article-title":"Effects of food, salinity, and ammonia-nitrogen on the physiology of juvenile seahorse (Hippocampus erectus) in two typical culture models in China","volume":"520","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"158","article-title":"Dried seahorse in traditional medicine: A narrative review","volume":"2","author":"Law","year":"2021","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Herb. Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1002\/aqc.629","article-title":"Assessing East African trade in seahorse species as a basis for conservation under international controls","volume":"14","author":"McPherson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Aquat. Conserv. Mar. Freshw. Ecosyst."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1017\/S0376892905002481","article-title":"Magnitude and inferred impacts of the seahorse trade in Latin America","volume":"32","author":"Baum","year":"2005","journal-title":"Environ. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2009.11.010","article-title":"A global review of seahorse aquaculture","volume":"302","author":"Koldewey","year":"2010","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0022-1112.2004.00429.x","article-title":"Life history and ecology of seahorses: Implications for conservation and management","volume":"65","author":"Foster","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Fish Biol."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"IUCN (2025, November 26). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2021.1. Available online: http:\/\/www.iucnredlist.org."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1017\/S003060530600010X","article-title":"Exploitation and trade of Australian seahorses, pipehorses, sea dragons and pipefishes (Family syngnathidae)","volume":"40","author":"Vincent","year":"2006","journal-title":"Oryx"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1016\/S0044-8486(02)00063-7","article-title":"Culturing the oceanic seahorse, Hippocampus kuda","volume":"214","author":"Job","year":"2002","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2006.11.011","article-title":"The effects of food and the sum of effective temperature on the embryonic development of the seahorse, Hippocampus kuda Bleeker","volume":"262","author":"Lin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-7345.2006.00044.x","article-title":"Growth and survival of the Tiger tail seahorse Hippocampus comes","volume":"37","author":"Job","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. World Aquac. Soc."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2012.06.013","article-title":"Diet composition and feeding periodicity of the seahorse Hippocampus barbouri reared in illuminated sea cages","volume":"358\u2013359","author":"Garcia","year":"2012","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2008.06.018","article-title":"Breeding and rearing the long snout seahorse Hippocampus reidi: Rearing and feeding studies","volume":"283","author":"Olivotto","year":"2008","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"35","article-title":"Prey selection of juvenile seahorse Hippocampus reidi","volume":"404\u2013405","author":"Regis","year":"2013","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"1099","article-title":"Fecundity, survival, and growth of the seahorse Hippocampus ingens (Pisces: Syngnathidae) under semi-controlled conditions","volume":"54","year":"2006","journal-title":"Rev. Biol. Trop."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/S0044-8486(03)00320-X","article-title":"The effects of temperature, Artemia enrichment, stocking density and light on the growth of juvenile seahorses, Hippocampus whitei (Bleeker, 1855), from Australia","volume":"228","author":"Wong","year":"2003","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1242\/bio.2012398","article-title":"The dynamics of reproductive rate, offspring survivorship and growth in the lined seahorse, Hippocampus erectus Perry, 1810","volume":"1","author":"Lin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biol. Open."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1007\/s10499-004-3100-7","article-title":"Growth of cultured seahorses (Hippocampus abdominalis) in relation to feed ration","volume":"13","author":"Woods","year":"2005","journal-title":"Aquac. Int."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2109.2003.00882.x","article-title":"Frozen mysids as an alternative to live Artemia in culturing seahorses Hippocampus abdominalis","volume":"34","author":"Woods","year":"2003","journal-title":"Aquac. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"24","article-title":"Techniques for rising lined seahorses (Hippocampus erectus)","volume":"3","author":"Scarratt","year":"1996","journal-title":"Aquar. Front."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1016\/S0044-8486(00)00408-7","article-title":"Improving initial survival in cultured seahorses, Hippocampus abdominalis Leeson, 1827 (Teleostei: Syngnathidae)","volume":"190","author":"Woods","year":"2000","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2008.02.030","article-title":"Breeding and juvenile culture of the lined seahorse, Hippocampus erectus Perry, 1810","volume":"277","author":"Lin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jembe.2012.10.003","article-title":"Temperature-induced changes of growth and survival in the early development of the seahorse Hippocampus guttulatus","volume":"438","author":"Planas","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2006.02.026","article-title":"Effects of food, temperature and light intensity on the feeding behavior of three-spot juvenile seahorses, Hippocampus trimaculatus Leach","volume":"256","author":"Sheng","year":"2006","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1007\/s10695-013-9881-8","article-title":"The effect of diet on ontogenic development of the digestive tract in juvenile reared long snout seahorse Hippocampus guttulatus","volume":"40","author":"Palma","year":"2014","journal-title":"Fish Physiol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Palma, J., Lima, R., Andrade, J.P., and Lan\u00e7a, M.J. (2023). Optimization of live prey enrichment media for rearing juvenile short-snouted seahorse, Hippocampus hippocampus. Fishes, 8.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202309.0490.v1"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Lunn, K.E., and Hall, H.J. (1998). Breeding and management of seahorses in aquaria. Briefing Documents for the First International Aquarium Workshop on Seahorse Husbandry, Management and Conservation, Project Seahorse."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1016\/S0044-8486(00)00349-5","article-title":"Rearing West Australian seahorse, Hippocampus subelongatus, juveniles on copepod nauplii and enriched Artemia","volume":"188","author":"Payne","year":"2000","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1439-0426.2003.00357.x","article-title":"Tolerance of seahorse Hippocampus kuda (Bleeker) juveniles to various salinities","volume":"19","author":"Garcia","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Appl. Ichthyol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/S0044-8486(02)00227-2","article-title":"Growth and survival of juvenile seahorse Hippocampus abdominalis reared on live, frozen and artificial foods","volume":"220","author":"Woods","year":"2003","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1016\/S0044-8486(02)00639-7","article-title":"Effects of varying Artemia enrichment on growth and survival of juvenile seahorses, Hippocampus abdominalis","volume":"220","author":"Woods","year":"2003","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2006.12.045","article-title":"Effect of tank colour on Artemia ingestion, growth and survival in cultured early juvenile pot-bellied seahorses (Hippocampus abdominalis)","volume":"264","author":"Purser","year":"2007","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2009.10.015","article-title":"Effects of substrate color, light intensity and temperature on survival and skin color change of juvenile seahorses, Hippocampus erectus Perry, 1810","volume":"298","author":"Lin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2009.03.031","article-title":"Weaning of juvenile seahorses Hippocampus erectus Perry, 1810 from live to frozen food","volume":"291","author":"Lin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1111\/anu.12394","article-title":"The impact of dietary supplementation with astaxanthin on egg quality and growth of long snout seahorse (Hippocampus guttulatus) juveniles","volume":"23","author":"Palma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aquac. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2011.05.035","article-title":"Effect of different Artemia enrichments and feeding protocol for rearing juvenile long snout seahorse, Hippocampus guttulatus","volume":"318","author":"Palma","year":"2011","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1111\/jwas.12037","article-title":"The effects of different feed enrichments on survivorship and growth of early juvenile long-snout seahorse, Hippocampus reidi","volume":"44","author":"Pham","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. World Aquac. Soc."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.22438\/jeb\/39\/5(SI)\/28","article-title":"Dietary effects of rotifers, brine shrimps and cultured copepods on survival and growth of newborn seahorse Hippocampus kuda (Bleeker 1852)","volume":"39","author":"Teh","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Environ. Biol."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"40","article-title":"Effect of Cultured Artemia on Growth and Survival of Juvenile Hippocampus barbouri","volume":"44","author":"Wung","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Fish. Environ."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gardner, T. (2004). The Copepod\/Artemia Trade-Off in the Captive Culture of Hippocampus erectus, a Vulnerable Species in New York State. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Hofstra University].","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470752722.ch22"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2006.05.061","article-title":"Effect of starvation on the initiation of feeding, growth and survival rate of juvenile seahorses, Hippocampus trimaculatus Leach and Hippocampus kuda Bleeker","volume":"271","author":"Sheng","year":"2007","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2008.07.057","article-title":"The use of the Mediterranean calanoid copepod Centropages typicus in Yellowtail clownfish (Amphiprion clarkii) larviculture","volume":"284","author":"Olivotto","year":"2008","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"355","article-title":"Calanoid copepod administration improves yellow tail clownfish (Amphiprion clarkii) larviculture: Biochemical and molecular implications","volume":"2","author":"Olivotto","year":"2009","journal-title":"AACL Bioflux"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1111\/jwas.12233","article-title":"A comparison of growth, survival, and fatty acid composition of the lined seahorse, Hippocampus erectus, juveniles fed enriched Artemia and a calanoid copepod, Schmackeria dubia","volume":"46","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. World Aquac. Soc."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1356","DOI":"10.1111\/are.12289","article-title":"Rearing the spotted seahorse Hippocampus kuda by feeding live and frozen copepods collected from shrimp ponds","volume":"46","author":"Thuong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Aquac. Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743549","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2025.743549","article-title":"Effects of live prey on growth performance, immune and digestive enzyme activities, and intestinal health in juvenile lined seahorse (Hippocampus erectus)","volume":"614","author":"Meng","year":"2026","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cato, J.C., and Brown, C.L. (2003). Research on culturing the early life history stages of marine ornamental species. Marine Ornamental Species: Collection, Culture and Conservation, Iowa State Press.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470752722"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2004.01.025","article-title":"Amino acid pools of rotifers and Artemia under different conditions: Nutritional implications for fish larvae","volume":"234","author":"Dinis","year":"2004","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2095.2007.00504.x","article-title":"Several micronutrients in the rotifer Brachionus sp. may not fulfil the nutritional requirements of marine fish larvae","volume":"14","author":"Hamre","year":"2008","journal-title":"Aquac. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/S0044-8486(99)00082-4","article-title":"Fish larval nutrition: A review of recent advances in the roles of amino acids","volume":"177","author":"Thorsen","year":"1999","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1007\/s13205-025-04565-2","article-title":"Merits of the cyclopoid copepod Apocyclops dengizicus as a suitable and sustainable live feed for marine finfish seed production","volume":"15","author":"Philip","year":"2025","journal-title":"3 Biotech"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.31782\/IJCRR.2021.13705","article-title":"Micro-algal diet for copepod culture with reference to their nutritive value\u2014A review","volume":"13","author":"Altaff","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Curr. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2109.2009.02242.x","article-title":"Live feeds for early stages of fish rearing","volume":"41","author":"Makridis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Aquac. Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-7345.2011.00453.x","article-title":"Advances in breeding and rearing marine ornamentals","volume":"42","author":"Olivotto","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. World Aquac. Soc."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.3923\/jbs.2012.433.437","article-title":"Generation time of some marine harpacticoid species in laboratory condition","volume":"12","author":"Zaleha","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Lavens, P., and Sorgeloos, P. (1996). Zooplankton. Manual on the Production and Use of Live Food for Aquaculture, FAO."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pan, Y.J., Dahms, H.U., Hwang, J.S., and Souissi, S. (2022). Recent trends in live feeds for marine larviculture: A mini review. Front. Mar. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2022.864165"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2018.03.011","article-title":"The importance of copepods as live feed for larval rearing of the green mandarin fish Synchiropus splendidus","volume":"491","author":"Zeng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Lenz, P.H. (2021). Virtual plankton: A novel approach to the investigation of aquatic predator\u2013prey interactions. Zooplankton: Sensory Ecology and Physiology, Routledge."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734912","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2019.734912","article-title":"Increased survival of larval spotted rose snapper (Lutjanus guttatus (Steindachner, 1869)) when fed with the copepod Cyclopina sp. and Artemia nauplii","volume":"519","author":"Burbano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2008.04.034","article-title":"The role of phospholipids in nutrition and metabolism of teleost fish","volume":"280","author":"Tocher","year":"2008","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Hardy, R.W., and Kaushik, S.J. (2022). The lipids. Fish Nutrition, Academic Press. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2095.2001.00165.x","article-title":"Influence of dietary polar lipid quantity and quality on ingestion and assimilation of labelled fatty acids by larval gilthead seabream","volume":"7","author":"Izquierdo","year":"2001","journal-title":"Aquac. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2109.2009.02190.x","article-title":"Influence of dietary phospholipids on early ontogenesis of fish","volume":"40","author":"Cahu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Aquac. Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1079\/BJN2003880","article-title":"Effect of dietary phospholipid level and phospholipid:neutral lipid value on the development of sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) larvae fed a compound diet","volume":"90","author":"Cahu","year":"2003","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/S0044-8486(97)00125-7","article-title":"Review on the dietary effects of phospholipids in fish and crustacean larviculture","volume":"155","author":"Coutteau","year":"1997","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2008.01.014","article-title":"Effect of dietary phospholipid levels on performance, enzyme activities and fatty acid composition of pikeperch (Sander lucioperca) larvae","volume":"275","author":"Hamza","year":"2008","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2013.05.018","article-title":"Effects of dietary phospholipids on survival, growth, digestive enzymes and stress resistance of large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea) larvae","volume":"410","author":"Zhao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"736728","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2021.736728","article-title":"Integrated response of growth performance, fatty acid composition, antioxidant responses and lipid metabolism to dietary phospholipids in hybrid grouper (Epinephelus fuscoguttatus \u2640 \u00d7 E. lanceolatus \u2642) larvae","volume":"541","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/S0044-8486(99)00083-6","article-title":"Recent developments in the essential fatty acid nutrition of fish","volume":"177","author":"Sargent","year":"1999","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/S0044-8486(99)00191-X","article-title":"Lipid nutrition of marine fish during early development: Current status and future directions","volume":"179","author":"Sargent","year":"1999","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/S0044-8486(03)00504-0","article-title":"Optimizing lipid nutrition in first-feeding flatfish larvae","volume":"227","author":"Bell","year":"2003","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2005.03.033","article-title":"Advances in rearing cobia Rachycentron canadum larvae in recirculating aquaculture systems: Live prey enrichment and greenwater culture","volume":"249","author":"Faulk","year":"2005","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/S0044-8486(03)00207-2","article-title":"Coral reef fish breeding: The secrets of each species","volume":"224","author":"Olivotto","year":"2003","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2006.01.007","article-title":"Breeding and rearing the Sunrise Dottyback Pseudochromis flavivertex: The importance of live prey enrichment during larval development","volume":"255","author":"Olivotto","year":"2006","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaeng.2014.07.003","article-title":"Copepod production in a saltwater pond system: A reliable method for achievement of natural prey in start-feeding of marine fish larvae","volume":"62","author":"Karlsen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Aquac. Eng."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.3354\/meps209219","article-title":"Reproductive cycles of dominant calanoid copepods in the North Sea","volume":"209","author":"Halsband","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2014.09.022","article-title":"Development of intensive copepod culture technology for Parvocalanus crassirostris: Optimizing adult density","volume":"435","author":"Kline","year":"2015","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"Sorgeloos, P., Lavens, P., L\u00e9ger, P., Tackaert, W., and Versichele, D. (1986). Manual for the Culture of Brine Shrimp Artemia in Aquaculture, University of Ghent."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1095-8312.1999.tb01886.x","article-title":"The taxonomy of Vietnam\u2019s exploited seahorses (Family syngnathidae)","volume":"66","author":"Lourie","year":"1999","journal-title":"Biol. J. Linn. Soc."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1139\/f81-087","article-title":"A simple growth model for salmonids in hatcheries","volume":"38","author":"Iwama","year":"1981","journal-title":"Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1080\/87559129009540876","article-title":"Fish nutrition, feeds and feeding: With special emphasis on salmonid aquaculture","volume":"6","author":"Cho","year":"1990","journal-title":"Food Rev. Int."},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemists) (1995). Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International. Agricultural Chemicals; Contaminants Drugs, Association of Official Analytical Chemists. [16th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-0981(89)90056-7","article-title":"The rapid analysis of neutral and polar marine lipids using double-development HPTLC and scanning densitometry","volume":"129","author":"Olsen","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"Christie, W.W. (1982). Lipid Analysis, Pergamon Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2010.07.005","article-title":"Lipid dynamics during early development of Hippocampus guttulatus seahorses: Searching for clues on fatty acid requirements","volume":"307","author":"Faleiro","year":"2010","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"Kraul, S., Ako, H., Brittain, K., Ogasawara, A., Cantrell, R., and Nagao, T. (1991). Comparison of copepods and enriched Artemia as feeds for larval Mahimahi (Coryphaena hippurus). Larvi \u201991; Special Publication No. 15, European Aquaculture Society."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-7345.1993.tb00007.x","article-title":"Nutritional factors affecting stress resistance in the larval mahimahi, Coryphaena hippurus","volume":"24","author":"Kraul","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. World Aquac. Soc."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1186","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/129.6.1186","article-title":"Natural copepods are superior to enriched Artemia nauplii as feed for halibut larvae (Hippoglossus hippoglossus) in terms of survival, pigmentation and retinal morphology: Relation to dietary essential fatty acids","volume":"129","author":"Shields","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_95","first-page":"703","article-title":"The elusive copepods: Their production and suitability in marine aquaculture","volume":"31","year":"2000","journal-title":"Aquac. Res."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734958","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2020.734958","article-title":"Survival, growth, ingestion rate and foraging behavior of larval green mandarin fish (Synchiropus splendidus) fed copepods only versus co-fed copepods with rotifers","volume":"520","author":"Shao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1015","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2109.2006.01523.x","article-title":"Short- and long-term differences in growth, feed conversion efficiency and deformities in juvenile Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) start-fed on rotifers or zooplankton","volume":"37","author":"Imsland","year":"2006","journal-title":"Aquac. Res."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e902","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.902","article-title":"Copepods enhance nutritional status, growth and development in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.) larvae\u2014Can we identify the underlying factors?","volume":"3","author":"Karlsen","year":"2015","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/S0044-8486(98)00318-4","article-title":"Growth and survival of juvenile pipefish (Stigmatopora argus) fed live copepods with high and low HUFA content","volume":"167","author":"Payne","year":"1998","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/0044-8486(94)00323-G","article-title":"First feeding of Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus) using different combinations of Artemia and wild zooplankton","volume":"130","author":"Naess","year":"1995","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/S0044-8486(98)00237-3","article-title":"Lipid and fatty acid composition of normal and malpigmented Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus) fed enriched Artemia: A comparison with fry fed wild copepods","volume":"163","author":"McEvoy","year":"1998","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2007.11.027","article-title":"The use of harpacticoid copepods as live prey for Amphiprion clarkii larviculture: Effects on larval survival and growth","volume":"274","author":"Olivotto","year":"2008","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/are.12471","article-title":"Improvement of copepod nutritional quality as live food for aquaculture: A review","volume":"47","author":"Rasdi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Aquac. Res."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2023.740169","article-title":"The effect of copepod Acartia tonsa during the first days of larval rearing on skeleton ontogeny and skeletal deformities in greater amberjack (Seriola dumerili Risso, 1810)","volume":"579","author":"Loufi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.9734\/ajfar\/2022\/v20i4502","article-title":"Efficacy of Apocyclops royi (Cyclopoida, Copepoda) nauplii as live prey for the first-feeding larvae of silver pompano, Trachinotus blochii (Lacep\u00e8de, 1801)","volume":"20","author":"Vijayaraj","year":"2022","journal-title":"Asian J. Fish. Aquat. Res."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/s41936-025-00425-w","article-title":"Asian seabass (Lates calcarifer) larval rearing using cyclopoid copepod (Apocyclops royi) live feed: A new approach","volume":"86","author":"Vijayaraj","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Basic Appl. Zool."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, Y.H., Lin, Y.R., Hsieh, H.Y., and Meng, P.J. (2025). Early feeding strategies for the larviculture of the vermiculated angelfish Chaetodontoplus mesoleucus: The key role of copepods. Animals, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani15162437"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3430","DOI":"10.1111\/are.15850","article-title":"Enhanced larval survival in orange-spotted grouper (Epinephelus coioides) using optimized feeding regime","volume":"53","author":"Ranjan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Aquac. Res."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e35877","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e35877","article-title":"Exploring the nutritional potential of Monoraphidium littorale and enriched copepods as first feeds for rearing Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) larvae","volume":"10","author":"Ritu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102437","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aqrep.2024.102437","article-title":"Enriched calanoid copepods Acartia tonsa (Dana, 1849) enhance growth, survival, biochemical composition and morphological development during larval first feeding of the orchid dottyback Pseudochromis fridmani (Klausewitz, 1968)","volume":"39","author":"Martino","year":"2024","journal-title":"Aquac. Rep."},{"key":"ref_111","first-page":"181","article-title":"Larval rearing of the giant trevally, Caranx ignobilis (Forssk\u00e5l, 1775), fed live food combinations of rotifers, copepods and Artemia salina","volume":"37","author":"Mutia","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Asian Fish. Soc."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743482","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2025.743482","article-title":"Systematic optimization and neural network modelling of Acartia steueri copepod reproduction for enhanced live feed solutions in sustainable aquaculture","volume":"614","author":"Marjuk","year":"2026","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2007.11.041","article-title":"Biochemical composition of copepods for evaluation of feed quality in production of juvenile marine fish","volume":"274","author":"Olsen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Santis, C., Taylor, J.F., Martinez-Rubio, L., and Tocher, D.R. (2015). Influence of development and dietary phospholipid content and composition on intestinal transcriptome of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0140964"},{"key":"ref_115","first-page":"374","article-title":"Phospholipids vs. neutral lipids: Effects on digestive enzyme activity and lipid absorption in Atlantic cod larvae","volume":"269","author":"Wold","year":"2007","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, S., Han, Z., Turchini, G.M., Wang, X., Fang, Z., Chen, N., Xie, R., Zhang, H., and Li, S. (2021). Effects of dietary phospholipids on growth performance, digestive enzyme activity and intestinal health of largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) larvae. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.827946"},{"key":"ref_117","first-page":"1428","article-title":"Molecular mechanism of dietary phospholipid requirement of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) fry","volume":"1851","author":"Taylor","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta Mol. Cell Biol. Lipids"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2007.12.007","article-title":"Effect of soybean phospholipid supplementation in formulated microdiets and live food on foregut and liver histological changes of yellow catfish (Pelteobagrus fulvidraco) larvae","volume":"278","author":"Lu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1007\/s10499-025-02236-w","article-title":"Influence of dietary phospholipid level and bile salt supplementation on larval performance of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.)","volume":"33","author":"Marthinsen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Aquac. Int."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2007.12.027","article-title":"Dietary supplementation of salmon roe phospholipid enhances the growth and survival of Pacific bluefin tuna (Thunnus orientalis) larvae and juveniles","volume":"275","author":"Seoka","year":"2008","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2109.2008.02150.x","article-title":"Fatty acid requirements in ontogeny of marine and freshwater fish","volume":"41","author":"Tocher","year":"2010","journal-title":"Aquac. Res."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"St\u00f8ttrup, J.G., and McEvoy, L.A. (2003). Biology, tank production and nutritional value of Artemia. Live Feeds in Marine Aquaculture, Blackwell Science.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470995143"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2005.03.037","article-title":"The effect of graded concentrations of dietary DHA on growth, survival and tissue fatty acid profile of Senegal sole (Solea senegalensis) larvae during the Artemia feeding period","volume":"249","author":"Villalta","year":"2005","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_124","first-page":"183","article-title":"Copepods as live food organisms in the rearing of marine fish larvae: Nutritional value and requirements","volume":"274","author":"Evjemo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Aquaculture"}],"container-title":["Fishes"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2410-3888\/11\/2\/72\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,26]],"date-time":"2026-01-26T16:37:10Z","timestamp":1769445430000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2410-3888\/11\/2\/72"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,23]]},"references-count":124,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["fishes11020072"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/fishes11020072","relation":{},"ISSN":["2410-3888"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2410-3888","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,23]]}}}