{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T14:54:56Z","timestamp":1777388096796,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":91,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,15]],"date-time":"2022-09-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1663200000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia (FCT)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SFRH\/BD\/117022\/2016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BD\/117022\/2016"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Forensic Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Age estimation is a paramount issue in criminal, anthropological, and forensic research. Because of this, several areas of research have focused on the establishment of new approaches for age prediction, including bimolecular and anthropological methods. In recent years, DNA methylation (DNAm) has arisen as one of the hottest topics in the field. Many studies have developed age-prediction models (APMs) based on evaluation of DNAm levels of many genes in different tissue types and using different methodological approaches. However, several challenges and confounder factors should be considered before using methylation levels for age estimation in forensic contexts. To provide in-depth knowledge about DNAm age estimation (DNAm age) and to understand why it is not yet a current tool in forensic laboratories, this review encompasses the literature for the most relevant scientific works published from 2015 to 2021 to address the challenges and future directions in the field. More than 60 papers were considered focusing essentially on studies that developed models for age prediction in several sample types.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/forensicsci2030044","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,15]],"date-time":"2022-09-15T22:11:10Z","timestamp":1663279870000},"page":"601-614","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Challenges and (Un)Certainties for DNAm Age Estimation in Future"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"2","author":[{"given":"Helena","family":"Correia Dias","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Coimbra, Research Centre for Anthropology and Health (CIAS), Department of Life Sciences, 3000-456 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"University of Coimbra, Centre for Functional Ecology (CEF), Laboratory of Forensic Anthropology, Department of Life Sciences, 3000-456 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2998-371X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eug\u00e9nia","family":"Cunha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Coimbra, Centre for Functional Ecology (CEF), Laboratory of Forensic Anthropology, Department of Life Sciences, 3000-456 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Francisco","family":"Corte Real","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3000-370 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2636-0288","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lic\u00ednio","family":"Manco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Coimbra, Research Centre for Anthropology and Health (CIAS), Department of Life Sciences, 3000-456 Coimbra, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2009.09.008","article-title":"The problem of aging human remains and living individuals: A review","volume":"193","author":"Cunha","year":"2009","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. 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