{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T08:13:35Z","timestamp":1773389615109,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773187200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Center for Functional Ecology Strategic Project","award":["UIDB\/04004\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04004\/2025"]}]},{"name":"Center for Functional Ecology Strategic Project","award":["UIDP\/04004\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/04004\/2025"]}]},{"name":"TERRA Associate Laboratory","award":["LA\/P\/0092\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LA\/P\/0092\/2020"]}]},{"name":"European funds","award":["CENTRO2030-FEDER-02614400"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CENTRO2030-FEDER-02614400"]}]},{"name":"FCT","award":["UIDB\/00681\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/00681\/2025"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Gels"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Marine algae, microalgae, and Cyanophyceae emerge as sustainable and versatile sources of biomacromolecules for the fabrication of hydrogels with broad biomedical potential. Their phycocolloids, such as alginate, agar, carrageenan, ulvan, and extracellular polysaccharides (EPS), exhibit intrinsic biocompatibility, tunable gelation behavior, and bioactive sulfated structures that support cell viability, tissue regeneration, and therapeutic delivery. This review provides a comprehensive overview of hydrogel fabrication strategies, including physical, chemical, and hybrid crosslinking approaches, and highlights recent advances in composite systems incorporating proteins, glycosaminoglycans, and functional nanomaterials. Applications in skin repair, cartilage and bone regeneration, neural and cardiovascular engineering, and controlled drug delivery are examined, alongside the expanding role of marine-derived hydrogels as bioinks for 3D and 4D bioprinting. Despite their promise, challenges remain related to extract variability, purification complexity, mechanical limitations, and the need for standardized characterization. Future perspectives emphasize genetic engineering of algae and cyanobacteria, development of multifunctional hybrid hydrogels, sustainable large-scale production, and pathways toward clinical translation. Together, these insights position marine-derived hydrogels as next-generation biomaterials with significant potential for regenerative medicine and therapeutic innovation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/gels12030228","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T09:00:37Z","timestamp":1773219637000},"page":"228","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Marine Algae Hydrogels as Emerging Biomaterials for Medicine"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6819-0619","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leonel","family":"Pereira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Functional Ecology (CFE), Marine Resources, Conservation and Technology, Marine Algae Lab, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, 3000-456 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"Associate Laboratory TERRA, Centre for Functional Ecology\u2014Science for People & the Planet (CFE), University of Coimbra, Campus at Figueira da Foz, Quinta das Olaias, 3080-183 Figueira da Foz, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0157-6648","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana","family":"Valado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Polytechnic University of Coimbra, Rua da Miseric\u00f3rdia, Lagar dos Corti\u00e7os, S. Martinho do Bispo, 3045-093 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"H&TRC\u2014Health & Technology Research Center, Coimbra Health School, Polytechnic University of Coimbra, Rua 5 de Outubro, 3045-043 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"Research Center for Natural Resources, Environment and Society (CERNAS), Polytechnic University of Coimbra, Bencanta, 3045-601 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"MARE\u2014Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre\/ARNET\u2014Aquatic Research Network, University of Coimbra, 3000-456 Coimbra, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Segneanu, A.-E., Bejenaru, L.E., Bejenaru, C., Blendea, A., Mogo\u015fanu, G.D., Bi\u0163\u0103, A., and Boia, E.R. (2025). Advancements in Hydrogels: A Comprehensive Review of Natural and Synthetic Innovations for Biomedical Applications. Polymers, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym17152026"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122488","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2024.122488","article-title":"A critical review on pharmacological properties of sulfated polysaccharides from marine macroalgae","volume":"344","author":"Jegadeshwari","year":"2024","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yi, X., Xie, J., and Mei, J. (2025). Recent Advances in Marine-Derived Polysaccharide Hydrogels: Innovative Applications and Challenges in Emerging Food Fields. Polymers, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym17182553"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, J., Jiao, G., and Kermanshahi-Pour, A. (2022). Algal Polysaccharides-Based Hydrogels: Extraction, Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications. Mar. Drugs, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/md20050306"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abka-Khajouei, R., Tounsi, L., Shahabi, N., Patel, A.K., Abdelkafi, S., and Michaud, P. (2022). Structures, Properties and Applications of Alginates. Mar. Drugs, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/md20060364"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malektaj, H., Drozdov, A.D., and De Claville Christiansen, J. (2023). Mechanical Properties of Alginate Hydrogels Cross-Linked with Multivalent Cations. Polymers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym15143012"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rana, M.M., and De la Hoz Siegler, H. (2024). Evolution of Hybrid Hydrogels: Next-Generation Biomaterials for Drug Delivery and Tissue Engineering. Gels, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels10040216"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calderon Moreno, J.M., Chelu, M., and Popa, M. (2025). Biocompatible Stimuli-Sensitive Natural Hydrogels: Recent Advances in Biomedical Applications. Gels, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels11120993"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmt.2021.101150","article-title":"Synthesis, properties, and biomedical applications of alginate methacrylate (ALMA)-based hydrogels: Current advances and challenges","volume":"24","author":"Hasany","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Mater. Today"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sauce-Guevara, M.A., Garc\u00eda-Schejtman, S.D., Alarcon, E.I., Bernal-Chavez, S.A., and Mendez-Rojas, M.A. (2025). Development and Characterization of an Injectable Alginate\/Chitosan Composite Hydrogel Reinforced with Cyclic-RGD Functionalized Graphene Oxide for Potential Tissue Regeneration Applications. Pharmaceuticals, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph18050616"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100829","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtbio.2023.100829","article-title":"Smart alginate inks for tissue engineering applications","volume":"23","author":"Keshavarz","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Today Bio"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2203148","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202203148","article-title":"Advances in Gelatin Bioinks to Optimize Bioprinted Cell Functions","volume":"12","author":"Asim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"1934578X241302009","article-title":"Marine-Derived Functional Biomaterials: Advancements in Biomedicine and Drug Delivery Applications","volume":"20","author":"Chellapandian","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Commun."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e03719","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2020.e03719","article-title":"Commercial hydrogels for biomedical applications","volume":"6","author":"Aswathy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100667","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtadv.2025.100667","article-title":"Biomaterials in droplet-based microfluidics: From structural design to biomedical applications","volume":"28","author":"Fergola","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mater. Today Adv."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"684","DOI":"10.1177\/0885328216669238","article-title":"Bio-printing cell-laden Matrigel\u2013agarose constructs","volume":"31","author":"Fan","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Biomater. Appl."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ovalle, L.V.C., Schneider, A.R., Nunes, A., and Maraschin, M. (2026). Biotechnological Potential of Carrageenan Extracted from Kappaphycus alvarezii: A Systematic Review of Industrial Applications and Sustainable Innovations. Biomass, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomass6010011"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lakshmi, D.S., Sankaranarayanan, S., Gajaria, T.K., Li, G., Kujawski, W., Kujawa, J., and Navia, R. (2020). A Short Review on the Valorization of Green Seaweeds and Ulvan: FEEDSTOCK for Chemicals and Biomaterials. Biomolecules, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom10070991"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1248\/cpb.c20-00763","article-title":"A Comprehensive Review on Ulvan Based Hydrogel and Its Biomedical Applications","volume":"69","author":"Sulastri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Pharm. Bull."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pari, R.F., Uju, U., Hardiningtyas, S.D., Ramadhan, W., Wakabayashi, R., Goto, M., and Kamiya, N. (2025). Ulva Seaweed-Derived Ulvan: A Promising Marine Polysaccharide as a Sustainable Resource for Biomaterial Design. Mar. Drugs, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/md23020056"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karuppusamy, S., Rajauria, G., Fitzpatrick, S., Lyons, H., McMahon, H., Curtin, J., Tiwari, B.K., and O\u2019Donnell, C. (2022). Biological Properties and Health-Promoting Functions of Laminarin: A Comprehensive Review of Preclinical and Clinical Studies. Mar. Drugs, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/md20120772"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1007\/s10856-025-06962-8","article-title":"Fucoidan in cancer therapy: From biomedical application to medicinal chemistry approach","volume":"36","author":"Zheng","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e21200401","DOI":"10.1590\/1678-4324-2021200401","article-title":"Potential Biotechnological Applications of Cyanobacterial Exopolysaccharides","volume":"64","author":"Parwani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Braz. Arch. Biol. Technol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olteanu, G., Neac\u0219u, S.M., Joi\u021ba, F.A., Musuc, A.M., Lupu, E.C., Ioni\u021b\u0103-M\u00eendrican, C.-B., Lupuliasa, D., and Mititelu, M. (2024). Advancements in Regenerative Hydrogels in Skin Wound Treatment: A Comprehensive Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25073849"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, T., Yang, Y., Lin, Z., Hong, Y., and Luo, Z. (2025). Modified Polysaccharides: Potential Biomaterials for Bioprinting. J. Funct. Biomater., 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/jfb16090338"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mourelle, M.L., D\u00edaz-Seoane, F., Inoubli, S., G\u00f3mez, C.P., and Legido, J.L. (2025). Microalgae and Cyanobacteria Exopolysaccharides: An Untapped Raw Material for Cosmetic Use. Cosmetics, 12.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202508.0395.v1"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yammine, P., El Safadi, A., Kassab, R., El-Nakat, H., Obeid, P.J., Nasr, Z., Tannous, T., Sari-Chmayssem, N., Mansour, A., and Chmayssem, A. (2025). Types of Crosslinkers and Their Applications in Biomaterials and Biomembranes. Chemistry, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/chemistry7020061"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5299","DOI":"10.1016\/S0032-3861(02)00290-2","article-title":"Gelation mechanism of agarose and \u03ba-carrageenan solutions estimated in terms of concentration fluctuation","volume":"43","author":"Matsuo","year":"2002","journal-title":"Polymer"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70181","DOI":"10.1002\/mco2.70181","article-title":"Self-Healing Hydrogels: Mechanisms and Biomedical Applications","volume":"6","author":"Xue","year":"2025","journal-title":"MedComm"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Briones, S.C., Mussagy, C.U., Farias, F.O., and C\u00f3rdova, A. (2025). Functional Hydrogels in Food Applications: A Review of Crosslinking Technologies, Encapsulation Trends, and Emerging Challenges. Polymers, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym17212955"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stlm.2025.100198","article-title":"Polymeric hydrogels for bioprinting: A comprehensive review","volume":"18","author":"Qureshi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ann. 3D Print Med."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"3","article-title":"Methacrylated polymeric hydrogels: An insight into their 3D bioprinting applications","volume":"104","author":"Shamiya","year":"2025","journal-title":"Can. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sojdeh, S., Panjipour, A., Yaghmour, A., Arabpour, Z., and Djalilian, A.R. (2025). Click Chemistry-Based Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering. Gels, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels11090724"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1007\/s10126-024-10361-5","article-title":"Extraction and Purification of Biopolymers from Marine Origin Sources Envisaging Their Use for Biotechnological Applications","volume":"26","author":"Carvalho","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mar. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35251","DOI":"10.1039\/D3RA07391B","article-title":"Revolutionizing biomedicine: Advancements, applications, and prospects of nanocomposite macromolecular carbohydrate-based hydrogel biomaterials: A review","volume":"13","author":"Alshangiti","year":"2023","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"630","DOI":"10.1016\/j.reth.2023.10.006","article-title":"An overview to nanocellulose clinical application: Biocompatibility and opportunities in disease treatment","volume":"24","author":"Malekpour","year":"2023","journal-title":"Regen. Ther."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100338","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sintl.2025.100338","article-title":"Self-healing graphene-based composite hydrogels for motion Sensing: Source, fabrication, and applications in assistive technologies\u2014A review","volume":"6","author":"Munasir","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sens. Int."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ho, T.-C., Chang, C.-C., Chan, H.-P., Chung, T.-W., Shu, C.-W., Chuang, K.-P., Duh, T.-H., Yang, M.-H., and Tyan, Y.-C. (2022). Hydrogels: Properties and Applications in Biomedicine. Molecules, 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27092902"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pintilei, P.S., Binaymotlagh, R., Chronopoulou, L., and Palocci, C. (2025). The Role of Natural Hydrogels in Enhancing Wound Healing: From Biomaterials to Bioactive Therapies. Pharmaceutics, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics17101243"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sepe, F., Valentino, A., Marcolongo, L., Petillo, O., Conte, R., Margarucci, S., Peluso, G., and Calarco, A. (2025). Marine-Derived Polysaccharide Hydrogels as Delivery Platforms for Natural Bioactive Compounds. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26020764"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1967","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm.b.34861","article-title":"Enhancing wound healing dressing development through interdisciplinary collaboration","volume":"109","author":"Hawthorne","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B Appl. Biomater."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2967","DOI":"10.3390\/md13052967","article-title":"Marine Polysaccharides from Algae with Potential Biomedical Applications","volume":"13","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Venkatesan, J., Anil, S., and Kim, S.-K. (2017). Chapter 16-Perspectives on Biomedical Applications of Ulvan. Seaweed Polysaccharides, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-809816-5.00001-3"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cota Quintero, J.L., Ramos-Pay\u00e1n, R., Romero-Quintana, J.G., Ayala-Ham, A., Berm\u00fadez, M., and Aguilar-Medina, E.M. (2025). Hydrogel-Based Scaffolds: Advancing Bone Regeneration Through Tissue Engineering. Gels, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels11030175"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2018.10.023","article-title":"Osteoblast responses to injectable bone substitutes of kappa-carrageenan and nano hydroxyapatite","volume":"83","author":"Bassous","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20417314241303818","DOI":"10.1177\/20417314241303818","article-title":"Bioinspired synthetic peptide-based biomaterials regenerate bone through biomimicking of extracellular matrix","volume":"15","author":"Azadi","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Tissue Eng."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calin, G., Costescu, M., Nour, M., Ciuhodaru, T., Denisa, B.-M., Duceac, L.D., Mihai, C., Munteanu, M.F., Trifunschi, S., and Oancea, A. (2025). Engineered Hydrogels for Musculoskeletal Regeneration: Advanced Synthesis Strategies and Therapeutic Efficacy in Preclinical Models. Polymers, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym17152094"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107370","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2019.03.009","article-title":"Neural tissue engineering with structured hydrogels in CNS models and therapies","volume":"42","author":"George","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Adv."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106427","DOI":"10.1016\/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106427","article-title":"Sustainable hydrogels as conductive platforms for neural applications","volume":"216","author":"Sriramakrishnan","year":"2025","journal-title":"React. Funct. Polym."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100996","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsamd.2025.100996","article-title":"Advances in smart hydrogels for nerve repair: A review focusing on criteria and applications","volume":"10","author":"Asiaei","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Sci. Adv. Mater. Devices"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147819","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2025.147819","article-title":"Development of smart conductive hydrogels based on a gold\u2013poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate\u2013liquid epoxidized natural rubber matrix for functional neuromodulation applications","volume":"329","author":"Taufik","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2211323","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202211323","article-title":"Marine-Derived Hydrogels for Biomedical Applications","volume":"33","author":"Lin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giraudo, M.V., Di Francesco, D., Catoira, M.C., Cotella, D., Fusaro, L., and Boccafoschi, F. (2020). Angiogenic Potential in Biological Hydrogels. Biomedicines, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines8100436"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lomartire, S., and Gon\u00e7alves, A.M.M. (2023). Algal Phycocolloids: Bioactivities and Pharmaceutical Applications. Mar. Drugs, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/md21070384"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1007\/s44347-025-00017-5","article-title":"Advances in natural polymer-based hydrogels: Synthesis, applications, and future directions in biomedical and environmental fields","volume":"2","author":"Nanda","year":"2025","journal-title":"Discov. Polym."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scopelliti, G., Ferraro, C., Parisi, O.I., and Dattilo, M. (2026). Recent Developments in Protein-Based Hydrogels for Advanced Drug Delivery Applications. Pharmaceutics, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics18010074"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chilwant, M., Paganini, V., Di Gangi, M., Brignone, S.G., Chetoni, P., Burgalassi, S., Monti, D., and Tampucci, S. (2025). From Sea to Therapy: Marine Biomaterials for Drug Delivery and Wound Healing. Pharmaceuticals, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph18081093"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122845","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2024.122845","article-title":"Recent advances in 3D bioprinted polysaccharide hydrogels for biomedical applications: A comprehensive review","volume":"348","author":"Damiri","year":"2025","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bprint.2021.e00129","article-title":"Insights on shear rheology of inks for extrusion-based 3D bioprinting","volume":"22","author":"Amorim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bioprinting"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125570","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2025.125570","article-title":"Alginate gels: Chemistry, gelation mechanisms, and therapeutic applications with a focus on GERD treatment","volume":"675","author":"Kapoor","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.201200317","article-title":"Photocrosslinkable Kappa-Carrageenan Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering Applications","volume":"2","author":"Mihaila","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Pereira, L., and Cotas, J. (2019). Importance of Alginate Bioink for 3D Bioprinting in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine. Alginates-Recent Uses of This Natural Polymer, IntechOpen."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodhyd.2016.07.003","article-title":"Thermoreversible gelation and scaling behavior of Ca2+-induced \u03ba-carrageenan hydrogels","volume":"61","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Hydrocoll."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2500475","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202500475","article-title":"Multimaterial and Multidimensional Bioprinting in Regenerative Medicine: Advances, Limitations, and Future Directions","volume":"14","author":"Yuan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, H., Liu, J., Sun, C., Wang, Y., Sun, Y., and Shi, X. (2026). Design and Fabrication of Biomimetic Gradient Bone Tissue Engineering Scaffolds: Evolution from Single-Gradient to Multi-Gradient. Gels, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels12020131"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1007\/s11947-025-04096-x","article-title":"Sustainable Valorization of Alginate, a Review of Green Extraction, Structure\u2013Function Relationships, and Next-Generation Food Applications","volume":"19","author":"Felicia","year":"2026","journal-title":"Food Bioprocess Technol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102540","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtbio.2025.102540","article-title":"Ultrasound-responsive hydrogels for bone and cartilage tissue engineering","volume":"35","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mater. Today Bio."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qin, S., Yuan, H., Shan, Z., Wang, J., and Pan, W. (2026). Rational Design of Mechanically Optimized Hydrogels for Bone Tissue Engineering: A Review. Gels, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels12010071"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martinez-Garcia, F.D., Fischer, T., Hayn, A., Mierke, C.T., Burgess, J.K., and Harmsen, M.C. (2022). A Beginner\u2019s Guide to the Characterization of Hydrogel Microarchitecture for Cellular Applications. Gels, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels8090535"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2427","DOI":"10.1007\/s13346-023-01329-4","article-title":"Fucoidan, a brown seaweed polysaccharide in nanodrug delivery","volume":"13","author":"George","year":"2023","journal-title":"Drug Deliv. Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1084","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2017.06.061","article-title":"Design of marine macroalgae photobioreactor integrated into building to support seagriculture for biorefinery and bioeconomy","volume":"241","author":"Chemodanov","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102060","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rineng.2024.102060","article-title":"Recent advances in the design and development of bioink formulations for various biomedical applications","volume":"22","author":"Jose","year":"2024","journal-title":"Results Eng."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parvin, N., Aslam, M., Alam, M.N., and Mandal, T.K. (2025). Nanotechnology Driven Innovations in Modern Pharmaceutics: Therapeutics, Imaging, and Regeneration. Nanomaterials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano15221733"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jddst.2024.106267","article-title":"Marine-based bioactive self-healing hydrogel with tunable properties for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine","volume":"101","author":"Karuppasamy","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol."}],"container-title":["Gels"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2310-2861\/12\/3\/228\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T05:25:56Z","timestamp":1773379556000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2310-2861\/12\/3\/228"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]]},"references-count":74,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]}},"alternative-id":["gels12030228"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/gels12030228","relation":{},"ISSN":["2310-2861"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2310-2861","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]]}}}