{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,6]],"date-time":"2026-01-06T05:29:04Z","timestamp":1767677344946,"version":"3.48.0"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,4]],"date-time":"2026-01-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767484800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"FCT\u2014Foundation for Science and Technology","award":["UI\/BD\/152214\/2021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UI\/BD\/152214\/2021"]}]},{"name":"FCT"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Geosciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Nowadays, despite the advancements in several technological areas, the education process of various subjects shows minimal evolution from the approaches used in prior years. In light of these, some fields struggle to capture the student\u2019s attention and motivation, in particular, when the subject addresses remote locations that students are unable to visit and relate to. Therefore, an opportunity exists to explore novel technologies for such scenarios. This work introduces an educational approach that integrates 3D Reconstruction, Virtual Reality (VR), and a Large Display to enrich Geoscience learning at the university level. In this teacher-centric approach, manipulation of virtual replicas of real-world geological sites can be performed, creating an immersive yet asymmetric collaborative environment for students in the classroom. The teacher\u2019s VR interactions are mirrored on a large display, enabling clear demonstrations of complex concepts. This allows students, who cannot physically visit these locations, to explore and understand the sites more deeply. To evaluate the effectiveness of this approach, a user study was conducted with 20 participants from Geoscience and Computer Science disciplines, comparing the VR-based method with a conventional approach. Analysis of the collected data suggests that, across multiple relevant dimensions, participants generally favored the VR condition, highlighting its potential for enhancing engagement and comprehension.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences16010028","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,5]],"date-time":"2026-01-05T10:53:50Z","timestamp":1767610430000},"page":"28","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Beyond Traditional Learning with a New Reality: Geoscience Education Enhanced by 3D Reconstruction, Virtual Reality, and a Large Display"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Andreia","family":"Santos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"GeoBioSciences, GeoEngineering and GeoTechnologies (GeoBioTec), Department of Geosciences (DGeo), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4454-710X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bernardo","family":"Marques","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro (IEETA), Department of Electronics, Telecommunications and Informatics (DETI), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Martins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro (IEETA), Department of Electronics, Telecommunications and Informatics (DETI), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Rub\u00e9n","family":"Sobral","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro (IEETA), Department of Electronics, Telecommunications and Informatics (DETI), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2799-643X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlos","family":"Ferreira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro (IEETA), Department of Economics, Management, Industrial Engineering and Tourism (DEGEIT), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7066-6105","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fernando","family":"Almeida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GeoBioSciences, GeoEngineering and GeoTechnologies (GeoBioTec), Department of Geosciences (DGeo), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3754-2749","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paulo","family":"Dias","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro (IEETA), Department of Electronics, Telecommunications and Informatics (DETI), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Beatriz","family":"Sousa Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro (IEETA), Department of Electronics, Telecommunications and Informatics (DETI), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-020-00444-8","article-title":"Virtual reality and augmented reality in social learning spaces: A literature review","volume":"25","author":"Scavarelli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Virtual Real."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kami\u0144ska, D., Sapi\u0144ski, T., Wiak, S., Tikk, T., Haamer, R.E., Avots, E., Helmi, A., Ozcinar, C., and Anbarjafari, G. (2019). Virtual reality and its applications in education: Survey. Information, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/info10100318"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103778","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2019.103778","article-title":"A systematic review of immersive virtual reality applications for higher education: Design elements, lessons learned, and research agenda","volume":"147","author":"Radianti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, J., LaFemina, P., Carr, J., Sajjadi, P., Wallgr\u00fcn, J.O., and Klippel, A. (2020, January 22\u201326). Learning in the field: Comparison of desktop, immersive virtual reality, and actual field trips for place-based STEM education. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces (VR), Atlanta, GA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/VR46266.2020.00012"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"577","article-title":"Applying virtual reality technology to geoscience classrooms","volume":"9","author":"Chenrai","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rev. Int. Geogr. Educ. Online"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-018-0363-2","article-title":"Virtual and augmented reality effects on K-12, higher and tertiary education students\u2019 twenty-first century skills","volume":"23","author":"Papanastasiou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Virtual Real."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s40692-020-00169-2","article-title":"Immersive virtual reality as a pedagogical tool in education: A systematic literature review of quantitative learning outcomes and experimental design","volume":"8","author":"Hamilton","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Comput. Educ."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Soliman, M., Pesyridis, A., Dalaymani-Zad, D., Gronfula, M., and Kourmpetis, M. (2021). The application of virtual reality in engineering education. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11062879"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104088","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cag.2024.104088","article-title":"Ten years of immersive education: Overview of a virtual and augmented reality course at postgraduate level","volume":"124","author":"Marques","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Graph."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"e00283","article-title":"Virtual Reality applications for visualization of 6000-year-old Neolithic graves from Lenzburg (Switzerland)","volume":"30","author":"Steuri","year":"2023","journal-title":"Digit. Appl. Archaeol. Cult. Herit."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1287","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-021-10653-6","article-title":"Adoption of virtual reality technology in higher education: An evaluation of five teaching semesters in a purpose-designed laboratory","volume":"27","author":"Marks","year":"2022","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1080\/1475939X.2022.2033307","article-title":"Are we ready for virtual reality in K\u201312 classrooms?","volume":"31","author":"Keane","year":"2022","journal-title":"Technol. Pedagog. Educ."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2020.104121","article-title":"Immersive virtual reality as a tool to learn problem-solving skills","volume":"164","author":"Keane","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100452","DOI":"10.1016\/j.edurev.2022.100452","article-title":"The potential of immersive virtual reality to enhance learning: A meta-analysis","volume":"36","author":"Coban","year":"2022","journal-title":"Educ. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48952","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3068858","article-title":"Immersive virtual reality for foreign language education: A PRISMA systematic review","volume":"9","author":"Peixoto","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100434","DOI":"10.1016\/j.edurev.2022.100434","article-title":"Effects of virtual reality on learning outcomes in K-6 education: A meta-analysis","volume":"35","year":"2022","journal-title":"Educ. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, X., Chen, Y., Hu, L., and Wang, Y. (2022). The metaverse in education: Definition, framework, features, potential applications, challenges, and future research topics. Front. Psychol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.1016300"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1619","DOI":"10.1177\/0735633119854035","article-title":"Augmented and virtual reality in education: Immersive learning research","volume":"57","author":"Beck","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Educ. Comput. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1007\/s11528-020-00572-7","article-title":"Approaches to integrate virtual reality into K-16 lesson plans: An introduction for teachers","volume":"65","author":"Hayes","year":"2021","journal-title":"TechTrends"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-022-11167-5","article-title":"Systematic literature review and bibliometric analysis on virtual reality and education","volume":"28","year":"2023","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1745","DOI":"10.1177\/0735633119854025","article-title":"Transforming earth science education through immersive experiences: Delivering on a long held promise","volume":"57","author":"Klippel","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Educ. Comput. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106316","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2020.106316","article-title":"Effects of augmented reality on learning and cognitive load in university physics laboratory courses","volume":"108","author":"Thees","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103758","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2019.103758","article-title":"Integration of the peer assessment approach with a virtual reality design system for learning earth science","volume":"146","author":"Chang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020","DOI":"10.1002\/cav.2020","article-title":"Exploring evolution of augmented and virtual reality education space in 2020 through systematic literature review","volume":"32","author":"Noah","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Animat. Virtual Worlds"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Muir, M., Gallagher, C.A., Conroy, D., Brown, R.A., Schrank, C.E., and T\u00fcrkay, S. (December, January 29). Development of an immersive visualisation system for the 3d learning of complex rock structures. Proceedings of the 34th Australian Conference on Human-Computer Interaction, Canberra, ACT, Australia."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gallagher, C.A., Muir, M.E., Conroy, D., Schrank, C.E., and T\u00fcrkay, S. (2023, January 2\u20136). From Micro to Macro Challenges: Advancing Geological Field Mapping Skills through VR Immersion and Scale. Proceedings of the Australian Computer-Human Interaction Conference, Wellington, New Zealand.","DOI":"10.1145\/3638380.3638409"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Young, J., Wood, M., Pantidi, N., Carroll, D., Crampton, J., and Atkins, C. (2025, January 8\u201312). From Picks to Pixels: An Exploration of Virtual Reality in Geoscience Education. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces (VR), Saint Malo, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/VR59515.2025.00049"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marques, B., Silva, S., Maio, R., Alves, J., Ferreira, C., Dias, P., and Santos, B.S. (2023, January 9\u201313). Evaluating outside the box: Lessons learned on extended reality multi-modal experiments beyond the laboratory. Proceedings of the International Conference on Multimodal Interaction, Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1145\/3577190.3614134"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marques, B., Santos, A., Sobral, R., Martins, J., Almeida, F., Dias, P., and Santos, B.S. (2023, January 2\u20133). Enhancing the Educational Process of Geosciences through 3D Reconstruction, Virtual Reality and a Large Display. Proceedings of the International Conference on Mobile and Ubiquitous Multimedia, MUM, Vienna, Austria.","DOI":"10.1145\/3626705.3631782"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Madeira, T., Marques, B., Neves, P., Dias, P., and Santos, B.S. (2022). Comparing desktop vs. Mobile interaction for the creation of pervasive augmented reality experiences. J. Imaging, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jimaging8030079"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1007\/s10606-018-9324-2","article-title":"The Effect of Collaboration Styles and View Independence on Video-Mediated Remote Collaboration","volume":"27","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Support. Coop. Work. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aschenbrenner, D., Rojkov, M., Leutert, F., Verlinden, J., Lukosch, S., Latoschik, M.E., and Schilling, K. (2018, January 16\u201320). Comparing Different Augmented Reality Support Applications for Cooperative Repair of an Industrial Robot. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality Adjunct (ISMAR-Adjunct), Munich, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISMAR-Adjunct.2018.00036"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Teo, T., Lawrence, L., Lee, G.A., Billinghurst, M., and Adcock, M. (2019, January 4\u20139). Mixed Reality Remote Collaboration Combining 360 Video and 3D Reconstruction. Proceedings of the CHI 2019, Glasgow, UK.","DOI":"10.1145\/3290605.3300431"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Piumsomboon, T., Dey, A., Ens, B., Lee, G., and Billinghurst, M. (2019). The effects of sharing awareness cues in collaborative mixed reality. Front. Robot. AI, 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2019.00005"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Merino, L., Schwarzl, M., Kraus, M., Sedlmair, M., Schmalstieg, D., and Weiskopf, D. (2020, January 9\u201313). Evaluating Mixed and Augmented Reality: A Systematic Literature Review (2009\u20132019). Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality, ISMAR, Virtual.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISMAR50242.2020.00069"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1007\/s12193-020-00346-8","article-title":"Multimodal interfaces and communication cues for remote collaboration","volume":"14","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Multimodal User Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cag.2021.10.009","article-title":"A vision for contextualized evaluation of remote collaboration supported by AR","volume":"102","author":"Marques","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Graph."}],"container-title":["Geosciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3263\/16\/1\/28\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,6]],"date-time":"2026-01-06T05:18:34Z","timestamp":1767676714000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3263\/16\/1\/28"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,4]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["geosciences16010028"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/geosciences16010028","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3263"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2076-3263"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,4]]}}}