{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,3]],"date-time":"2026-04-03T03:00:23Z","timestamp":1775185223570,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,7,30]],"date-time":"2015-07-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1438214400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The aim of this study was to identify child and school-level characteristics that explained inter-individual differences in gross motor coordination (GMC). Participants  (n = 390), recruited from 18 Portuguese primary schools, were aged 6 to 10 years of age. Birth weight, body fat (BF), physical activity (PA), physical fitness (PF) and GMC were assessed. School size, setting, infrastructure and physical education classes were considered as school context markers. A multilevel modeling approach was used to identify hierarchical effects (child and school levels). It was found that children-level variables (sex, PF, and BF) significantly explained 63% of the 90% variance fraction at the individual level; boys outperformed girls (p &lt; 0.05), individuals with higher BF were less coordinated (p &lt; 0.05), and those with higher PF were more coordinated (p &lt; 0.05). School-variables (e.g. school size and playing surface) explained 84% of the 10% variation fraction. These findings confirm the roles of sex, PFS and BF. Interestingly they also suggest that the school environment plays a minor but significant role in GMC development. However,  it is important to stress that the school context and conditions can also play an important role in a child\u2019s motor development, providing adequate and enriching motor opportunities.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph120808883","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,7,30]],"date-time":"2015-07-30T11:21:59Z","timestamp":1438255319000},"page":"8883-8896","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["Effects of Individual and School-Level Characteristics on a Child\u2019s Gross Motor Coordination Development"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Raquel","family":"Chaves","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Academic Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Technology, Paran\u00e1 (UTFPR), Av. Sete de Setembro, 3165, 80230-901-Curitiba\/PR, Brazil"},{"name":"CAPES Foundation, Ministry of Education of Brazil, SBN Quadra2, Bloco L, Lote 06, 70040020, Bras\u00edlia, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0430-0556","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adam","family":"Baxter-Jones","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Kinesiology, University of Saskatchewan, 87 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B2, Canada"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4991-1238","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thayse","family":"Gomes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIFI2D (Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o, Forma\u00e7\u00e3o, Inova\u00e7\u00e3o e Interven\u00e7\u00e3o em Desporto), Kinanthropometry Lab, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Pl\u00e1cido Costa, 91,  4250-Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Michele","family":"Souza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CAPES Foundation, Ministry of Education of Brazil, SBN Quadra2, Bloco L, Lote 06, 70040020, Bras\u00edlia, Brazil"},{"name":"CIFI2D (Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o, Forma\u00e7\u00e3o, Inova\u00e7\u00e3o e Interven\u00e7\u00e3o em Desporto), Kinanthropometry Lab, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Pl\u00e1cido Costa, 91,  4250-Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4661-3879","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sara","family":"Pereira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIFI2D (Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o, Forma\u00e7\u00e3o, Inova\u00e7\u00e3o e Interven\u00e7\u00e3o em Desporto), Kinanthropometry Lab, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Pl\u00e1cido Costa, 91,  4250-Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3273-0046","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"Maia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIFI2D (Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o, Forma\u00e7\u00e3o, Inova\u00e7\u00e3o e Interven\u00e7\u00e3o em Desporto), Kinanthropometry Lab, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Pl\u00e1cido Costa, 91,  4250-Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,7,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tomkinson, G.R., and Olds, T.S. (2007). Pediatric Fitness. Secular Trends And Geographical Variability, Karger.","DOI":"10.1159\/isbn.978-3-318-01396-2"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1111\/nyas.12030","article-title":"What is metabolic syndrome, and why are children getting it?","volume":"1281","author":"Weiss","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Cattuzzo, M.T., Dos Santos Henrique, R., Re, A.H., de Oliveira, I.S., Melo, B.M., de Sousa Moura, M., de Araujo, R.C., and Stodden, D. (2014). Motor competence and health related physical fitness in youth: A systematic review. J. Sci. Med. Sport."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.3109\/17477166.2010.500388","article-title":"Gross motor coordination in relation to weight status and age in 5- to 12-year-old boys and girls: A cross-sectional study","volume":"6","author":"Deforche","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Pediatr. Obes."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychsport.2014.03.005","article-title":"Relationship of fundamental movement skills and physical activity in children and adolescents: A systematic review","volume":"15","author":"Holfelder","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychol. Sport Exerc."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.2165\/11536850-000000000-00000","article-title":"Fundamental movement skills in children and adolescents: Review of associated health benefits","volume":"40","author":"Lubans","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1123\/pes.23.4.504","article-title":"Multivariate association among morphology, fitness, and motor coordination characteristics in boys age 7 to 11","volume":"23","author":"Vandendriessche","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pediatr. Exerc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1123\/pes.24.1.113","article-title":"Variation in sport participation, fitness and motor coordination with socioeconomic status among flemish children","volume":"24","author":"Vandendriessche","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatr. Exerc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Gallahue, D., Ozmun, J., and Goodway, J. (2011). Understanding Motor Development: Infants, Children, Adolescents, Adults, McGraw-Hill Education."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.2009.03337.x","article-title":"Gross motor performance and self-perceived motor competence in children with emotional, behavioral, and pervasive developmental disorders: A review","volume":"51","author":"Emck","year":"2009","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1080\/02701367.2009.10599556","article-title":"The association between motor skill competence and physical fitness in young adults","volume":"80","author":"Stodden","year":"2009","journal-title":"Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"162","article-title":"Gender differences in motor skill proficiency from childhood to adolescence: A longitudinal study","volume":"81","author":"Barnett","year":"2010","journal-title":"Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malina, R.M., Bouchard, C., and Bar-Or, O. (2004). Growth, Maturation, and Physical Activity, Human Kinetics.","DOI":"10.5040\/9781492596837"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Bouchard, C., Malina, R.M., and P\u00e9russe, L. (1997). Genetics of Fitness and Physical Performance, Human Kinetics."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1590\/S1807-55092012000200012","article-title":"Variabilidade na coordena\u00e7\u00e3o motora: Uma abordagem centrada no delineamento gemelar","volume":"26","author":"Chaves","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. Educ. F\u00eds. Esporte."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.1998.tb12325.x","article-title":"Neuromotor ability in 5- to 7-year-old children with very low or extremely low birthweight","volume":"40","author":"Keller","year":"1998","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1361","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2013-1167","article-title":"Fundamental movement skill interventions in youth: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"132","author":"Morgan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pediatr"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Chaves, R.N., Souza, M.C., Santos, D., Gomes, T.N., Santos, F.K., and Maia, J. (2012). Cada. Vez Mais Ativo (ii). Uma hist\u00f3ria Com Muitas Voltas, FADE-UP. (In Portuguese)."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchb.2014.03.007","article-title":"Height, weight, body composition, and waist circumference references for 7\u201317 year old children from rural Portugal","volume":"66","author":"Chaves","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Comp. Human Biol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1479","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ejcn.1601993","article-title":"New bioimpedance analysis system: Improved phenotyping with whole-body analysis","volume":"58","author":"Pietrobelli","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"141","article-title":"A simple method to assess exercise behavior in the community","volume":"10","author":"Godin","year":"1985","journal-title":"Can. J. Appl. Sport. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1249\/00005768-199301000-00012","article-title":"A simultaneous evaluation of 10 commonly used physical activity questionnaires","volume":"25","author":"Jacobs","year":"1993","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1249\/00005768-199301000-00014","article-title":"Seven-day recall and other physical activity self-reports in children and adolescents","volume":"25","author":"Sallis","year":"1993","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.5007\/1980-0037.2010v12n5p309","article-title":"Passing rates on physical fitness. Effects of age, gender, physical activity, overweight and obesity","volume":"12","author":"Santos","year":"2010","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. Cineantropom. Desempenho Hum."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1487","DOI":"10.1038\/ijo.2010.56","article-title":"Correlates of changes in bmi of children from the azores islands","volume":"34","author":"Martins","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"47","article-title":"Padr\u00e3o de actividade f\u00edsica. Estudo em crian\u00e7as de ambos os sexos do 4. ano de escolaridade","volume":"2","author":"Maia","year":"2002","journal-title":"Rev. Port. Cien. Desp."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Freitas, D., Marques, A., and Maia, J.A.R. (1997). Aptid\u00e3o. F\u00edsica. Da Popula\u00e7\u00e3o. Escolar Da Regi\u00e3o. Aut\u00f3noma. Da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira. (In Portuguese)."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Safrit, M. (1990). Introduction To Measurement In Physical Education And Exercise Science, Times Mirror\/Mosby College Publishing."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.6063\/motricidade.10(1).2456","article-title":"Valores normativos do desempenho motor: constru\u00e7\u00e3o de cartas percent\u00edlicas baseadas no m\u00e9todo LMS de Cole & Green","volume":"10","author":"Chaves","year":"2014","journal-title":"Motricidade"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Kiphard, E.J., and Schilling, F. (1974). K\u00f6perkoordinationtest. F\u00fcr. Kinder, Beltz Test GmbH."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0838.2009.01027.x","article-title":"Motor coordination as predictor of physical activity in childhood","volume":"21","author":"Lopes","year":"2011","journal-title":"Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0838.2009.01067.x","article-title":"The korperkoordinationstest fur kinder: Reference values and suitability for 6\u201312-year-old children in flanders","volume":"21","author":"Vandorpe","year":"2011","journal-title":"Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Schilling, F. (Sum of Raw Scores of Each KTK Test, 2015). Sum of Raw Scores of Each KTK Test, (In English)."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Raudenbush, S.W., Bryk, A.S., and Congdon, R.T. (HLM. 6: for Windows, 2004). HLM. 6: for Windows."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Hox, J.J. (2010). Techniques and Applications, Routledge."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Raudenbush, S.W., Bryk, A.S., Cheong, Y.F., Congdon, R.T., and du Toit, M. (HLM. 6: Linear and Nonlinear Modeling, 2004). HLM. 6: Linear and Nonlinear Modeling."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ijo.0802428","article-title":"Correlation between bmi, leisure habits and motor abilities in childhood (chilt-project)","volume":"28","author":"Graf","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"758","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2006-0742","article-title":"The relationship between motor proficiency and physical activity in children","volume":"118","author":"Wrotniak","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pediatric"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"894","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2011.01.017","article-title":"Physical activity and fitness in children with developmental coordination disorder: A systematic review","volume":"32","author":"Rivilis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Res. Dev. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1080\/00336297.2008.10483582","article-title":"A developmental perspective on the role of motor skill competence in physical activity: An emergent relationship","volume":"60","author":"Stodden","year":"2008","journal-title":"Quest"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1007\/s10995-009-0461-6","article-title":"Birth weight effects on children's mental, motor, and physical development: Evidence from twins data","volume":"13","author":"Datar","year":"2009","journal-title":"Matern. Child. Health J."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-3782(02)00094-4","article-title":"Longitudinal motor development of \u201capparently normal\u201d high-risk infants at 18 months, 3 and 5 years","volume":"70","author":"Goyen","year":"2002","journal-title":"Early Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"898","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0b013e3181fdfadd","article-title":"A reverse pathway? Actual and perceived skill proficiency and physical activity","volume":"43","author":"Barnett","year":"2011","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1080\/17408989.2012.690386","article-title":"The relationship between fundamental movement skills and self-reported physical activity during finnish junior high school","volume":"18","author":"Jaakkola","year":"2012","journal-title":"Phys. Edu. Sport Pedagog."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jadohealth.2008.07.004","article-title":"Childhood motor skill proficiency as a predictor of adolescent physical activity","volume":"44","author":"Barnett","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Adolesc. Health"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1123\/pes.21.4.436","article-title":"Relationships between fundamental movement skills and objectively measured physical activity in preschool children","volume":"21","author":"Cliff","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pediatr. Exerc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsams.2011.04.004","article-title":"Physical fitness in rural and urban children and adolescents from Spain","volume":"14","author":"Ortega","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Sci. Med. Sport"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/S0885-2006(99)80007-6","article-title":"The impact of playground design on the play behaviors of children with differing levels of physical competence","volume":"14","author":"Barbour","year":"1999","journal-title":"Early Child. Res. Qurt."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1111\/ped.12042","article-title":"Associations of biological factors and affordances in the home with infant motor development","volume":"55","author":"Saccani","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pediatr. Int."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1027\/1614-2241.1.3.86","article-title":"Sufficient sample sizes for multilevel modeling","volume":"1","author":"Maas","year":"2005","journal-title":"Methodology"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsams.2012.08.011","article-title":"Child, family and environmental correlates of children's motor skill proficiency","volume":"16","author":"Barnett","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Sci. Med. Sport"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2010.551540","article-title":"Fundamental movement skill performance of preschool children in relation to family context","volume":"29","author":"Cools","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Sports. Sci."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/12\/8\/8883\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T20:49:55Z","timestamp":1760215795000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/12\/8\/8883"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,7,30]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,8]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph120808883"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph120808883","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,7,30]]}}}