{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,28]],"date-time":"2026-03-28T15:49:25Z","timestamp":1774712965243,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,2,17]],"date-time":"2017-02-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1487289600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Certain filamentous fungi produce mycotoxins that contaminate food. Mycotoxin contamination of crops is highly influenced by environmental conditions and is already affected by global warming, where there is a succession of mycotoxigenic fungi towards those that have higher optimal growth temperatures. Aflatoxigenic fungi are at the highest limit of temperature although predicted increases in temperature are beyond that constraint. The present paper discusses what will succeed these fungi and represents the first such consideration. Aflatoxins are the most important mycotoxins and are common in tropical produce, much of which is exported to temperate regions. Hot countries may produce safer food under climate change because aflatoxigenic fungi will be inhibited. The same situation will occur in previously temperate regions where these fungi have recently appeared, although decades later. Existing thermotolerant and thermophilic fungi (TTF) will dominate, in contrast to the conventional mycotoxigenic fungi adapting or mutating, as it will be quicker. TTF produce a range of secondary metabolites, or potential mycotoxins and patulin which may become a new threat. In addition, Aspergillus fumigatus will appear more frequently, a serious human pathogen, because it is (a) thermotolerant and (b) present on crops: hence this is an even greater problem. An incubation temperature of 41 \u00b0C needs employing forthwith to detect TTF. Finally, TTF in crops requires study because of the potential for diseases in humans and animals under climate change.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph14020199","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,2,17]],"date-time":"2017-02-17T12:10:34Z","timestamp":1487333434000},"page":"199","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":52,"title":["Thermophilic Fungi to Dominate Aflatoxigenic\/Mycotoxigenic Fungi on Food under Global Warming"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Robert","family":"Paterson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CEB\u2014Centre of Biological Engineering, Campus de Gualtar, University of Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2185-0613","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nelson","family":"Lima","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CEB\u2014Centre of Biological Engineering, Campus de Gualtar, University of Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,2,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Botana, M.J., and Sainz, L.M. (2015). Climate Change and Mycotoxins, Walter de Gruyter GmbH.","DOI":"10.1515\/9783110333619"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4004","DOI":"10.1029\/2010RG000345","article-title":"Global surface temperature change","volume":"48","author":"Hansen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14457","DOI":"10.1038\/srep14457","article-title":"Future climate effects on suitability for growth of oil palms in Malaysia and Indonesia","volume":"5","author":"Paterson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1007\/s12550-010-0078-z","article-title":"Comparing aflatoxin contamination in chilies from Punjab, Pakistan produced in summer and winter","volume":"27","author":"Iqbal","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mycotoxin Res."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Mercury Rising: India Records Its Highest Temperature Ever. Available online: http:\/\/edition.cnn.com\/2016\/05\/20\/asia\/india-record-temperature\/."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, H., van der Lee, T., Wallwijk, C., Chen, W., Xu, J., Zhang, Y., and Feng, J. (2012). Population analysis of the Fusarium graminearum species complex from wheat in China shows a shift to more aggressive isolates. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0031722"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Binder, E.M. (2012). World Nutrition Form. NutriEconomics: Balancing Global Nutrition & Productivity, Anytime Publishing."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1007\/s10658-010-9692-z","article-title":"The impact of global warming on plant diseases and insect vectors in Sweden","volume":"129","author":"Roos","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Plant Pathol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Botana, M.J., and Sainz, L.M. (2015). Climate Change and Mycotoxins, Walter de Gruyter GmbH.","DOI":"10.1515\/9783110333619"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1009","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2009.02.005","article-title":"Climate change and food safety: An emerging issue with special focus on Europe","volume":"47","author":"Miraglia","year":"2009","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2555","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2011.05.038","article-title":"Further mycotoxin effects from climate change","volume":"44","author":"Paterson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2009.02.004","article-title":"Environment can alter selection in host-parasite interactions","volume":"25","author":"Wolinksa","year":"2009","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McElhatton, A., and Marshall, R.J. (2007). Food Safety\u2014A Practical and Case Study Approach, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-33957-3"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (2003). Mycotoxins: Risks in Plant, Animal, and Human Systems Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, Council for Agricultural Science and Technology."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Botana, L.M., and Sainz, M.J. (2015). Climate Change and Mycotoxins, Walter de Gruyter GmbH.","DOI":"10.1515\/9783110333619"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1902","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2009.07.010","article-title":"How will climate change affect mycotoxins in food?","volume":"43","author":"Paterson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2014.03.037","article-title":"Coffee, mycotoxins and climate change","volume":"61","author":"Paterson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2016.08.002","article-title":"Biodiversity of mycobiota throughout the Brazil nut supply chain: From rainforest to consumer","volume":"61","author":"Taniwaki","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1157","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins4111157","article-title":"Factors influencing deoxynivalenol accumulation in small grain cereals","volume":"4","author":"Wegulo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Toxins (Basel)"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Magan, N., and Olsen, M. (2004). Mycotoxins in Food: Detection and Control, Woodhead Publishing Ltd.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781439823361"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Botana, M.J., and Sainz, L.M. (2015). Climate Change and Mycotoxins, Walter de Gruyter GmbH.","DOI":"10.1515\/9783110333619"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Miller, J.D., and Richardson, S.N. Mycotoxins in Canada: A Perspective for 2013. Available online: http:\/\/scabusa.org\/pdfs\/Mycotoxins-in-Canada_Sept-13.pdf."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cofs.2015.11.002","article-title":"Climate change and mycotoxigenic fungi: Impacts on mycotoxin production","volume":"5","author":"Medina","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fgb.2007.10.003","article-title":"An adaptive evolutionary shift in fusarium head blight pathogen populations is driving the rapid spread of more toxigenic Fusarium graminearum in North America","volume":"45","author":"Ward","year":"2008","journal-title":"Fungal Genet. Biol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Botana, M.J., and Sainz, L.M. (2015). Climate Change and Mycotoxins, Walter de Gruyter GmbH.","DOI":"10.1515\/9783110333619"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"European Food Safety Authority (2011). Modelling, predicting and mapping the emergence of aflatoxins in cereals in the EU due to climate change. Romania, 1, 3."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"7","article-title":"Mycotoxins: Risks, regulations and European cooperation","volume":"125","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Nat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1745","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2010.07.003","article-title":"Climate change and food safety: A review","volume":"43","author":"Tirado","year":"2010","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03543705","article-title":"Penicillium and Aspergillus mycotoxins\u2014Diagnostic characters and quantitative data from commodities and cultures","volume":"25","author":"Paterson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Cereal Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1080\/15572536.2007.11832583","article-title":"The effect of elevated temperature on gene transcription and aflatoxin biosynthesis","volume":"99","author":"Georgianna","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mycologia"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"41","article-title":"Effect of rainfall and maximum temperature on corn aflatoxin contamination in the Southeast U.S.","volume":"88","author":"Salvacion","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clim. Inf. Manag. Risks"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"European Food Safety Authority (2004). Opinion of the scientific panel on contaminants in the food chain on a request from the Commission related to aflatoxin B1 as undesirable substance in animal feed. EFSA J., 39, 1\u201327.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2004.39"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Food and Agriculture Organization Climate Change: Implications for Food Safety. Available online: http:\/\/www.fao.org\/docrep\/010\/i0195e\/i0195e00.HTM."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.funeco.2008.07.001","article-title":"Effect of solute and matric potential on in vitro growth and sporulation of strains from a new population of Aspergillus flavus isolated in Italy","volume":"1","author":"Giorni","year":"2008","journal-title":"Fungal Ecol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"European Food Safety Authority (2007). Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain on a request from the Commission related to the potential increase of consumer health risk by a possible increase of the existing maximum levels for aflatoxins in almonds, hazelnuts and pistachios and derived products. EFSA J., 446, 1\u2013127.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2007.446"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3059.2010.02412.x","article-title":"Possible climate-change effects on mycotoxin contamination of food crops pre- and postharvest","volume":"60","author":"Magan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Plant Pathol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2006.09.007","article-title":"Studies on Aspergillus section Flavi isolated from maize in northern Italy","volume":"113","author":"Giorni","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Botana, M.J., and Sainz, L.M. (2015). Climate Change and Mycotoxins, Walter de Gruyter GmbH.","DOI":"10.1515\/9783110333619"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2013.04.004","article-title":"Natural occurrence of aflatoxins in maize harvested in Serbia during 2009\u20132012","volume":"34","author":"Kos","year":"2013","journal-title":"Food Control."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1556\/AAlim.42.2013.3.18","article-title":"Occurrence of aflatoxin producing Aspergillus flavus isolates in maize kernel in Hungary","volume":"42","author":"Dobolyi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Aliment. Hung."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"RASFF Portal. Available online: https:\/\/webgate.ec.europa.eu\/rasff-window\/portal\/."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cofs.2015.09.002","article-title":"Aflatoxins: Climate change and biodegradation","volume":"5","author":"Baranyi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1023\/B:EJPP.0000032393.72921.5b","article-title":"Synteny in toxigenic Fusarium species: The fumonisin gene cluster and the mating type region as examples","volume":"110","author":"Waalwijk","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eur. J. Plant Pathol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1063","DOI":"10.1080\/02652030902788953","article-title":"Fusarium mycotoxin content of UK organic and conventional oats","volume":"26","author":"Edwards","year":"2009","journal-title":"Food Addit. Contam. A"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0434.2007.01394.x","article-title":"Population genetics of three important head blight pathogens Fusarium graminearum, F. pseudograminearum and F. culmorum","volume":"156","author":"Miedaner","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Phytopathol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leslie, J.F., Bandyopadhyay, R., and Visconti, A. (2008). Mycotoxins: Detection Methods, Management, Public Health and Agricultural Trade, CABI.","DOI":"10.1079\/9781845930820.0000"},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"129","article-title":"Fusarium head blight of wheat: Pathogenic species and their mycotoxins","volume":"156","author":"Chelkowski","year":"2008","journal-title":"World Mycotox J."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1007\/s00792-014-0707-0","article-title":"Thermophilic fungi in the new age of fungal taxonomy","volume":"19","author":"Gomes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Extremophiles"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2013.12.021","article-title":"Risk analysis and rapid detection of the genus Thermoascus, food spoilage fungi","volume":"41","author":"Hosoya","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Cole, R.J., and Schweikert, M.A. (2003). Handbook of Secondary Fungal Metabolites, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paterson, R.R.M., and Lima, N. (2015). Molecualr Biology of Food and Water Borne Mycotoxigenic and Mycotic Fungi, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/b18645"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4272","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.38.11.4272-4273.2000","article-title":"Fungal contamination of food in hematology units","volume":"38","author":"Bouakline","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1111\/myc.12167","article-title":"Our recommendations for avoiding exposure to fungi outside the hospital for patients with haematological cancers","volume":"57","author":"Kontoyiannis","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mycoses"},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"296","article-title":"Fungal and mycotoxin contamination of South African commercial maize","volume":"10","author":"Chilaka","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Food Agric. Environ."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/S0232-4393(11)80101-0","article-title":"Mycoflora and natural occurrence of mycotoxins in tobacco from cigarettes in Egypt","volume":"148","year":"1993","journal-title":"Zentralbl. Mikrobiol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/S0232-4393(11)80117-4","article-title":"Mycoflora and mycotoxin of hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) and walnut (Juglans regia L.) seeds in Egypt","volume":"148","author":"Saber","year":"1993","journal-title":"Zentralbl. Mikrobiol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1128\/MMBR.64.3.461-488.2000","article-title":"Thermophilic fungi: Their physiology and enzymes","volume":"64","author":"Maheshwari","year":"2000","journal-title":"Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"77","article-title":"Thermophilic fungi: Taxonomy and biogeography","volume":"3","author":"Salar","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Agric. Technol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.5962\/p.354450","article-title":"Thermophilic fungi: Biodiversity and taxonomic status","volume":"18","author":"Mouchacca","year":"1997","journal-title":"Cryptogam. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2015.12.016","article-title":"Biodegradation of patulin by a Byssochlamys nivea strain","volume":"64","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Control."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.3767\/003158509X418925","article-title":"Polyphasic taxonomy of the heat resistant ascomycete genus Byssochlamys and its Paecilomyces anamorphs","volume":"22","author":"Samson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Persoonia Mol. Phylogeny Evol. Fungi"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/14\/2\/199\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:28:33Z","timestamp":1760207313000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/14\/2\/199"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,2,17]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,2]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph14020199"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph14020199","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,2,17]]}}}